University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School 2014 Demographic and epidemiological changes on the Flathead Reservation 1887-1935 Christina Joy Heiner The University of Montana Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation Heiner, Christina Joy, "Demographic and epidemiological changes on the Flathead Reservation 1887-1935" (2014). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 10767. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/10767 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact [email protected]. DEMOGRAPHIC AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL CHANGES ON THE FLATHEAD RESERVATION 1887-1935 By CHRISTINA J. HEINER Master of Arts, University of Montana, Missoula 2006 Bachelor of Arts, University of Montana, Missoula 2002 Dissertation presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy In Anthropology The University of Montana Missoula, MT May 2014 Approved by: Sandy Ross, Dean of The Graduate School Graduate School Dr. Richard Sattler, Chair Department of Anthropology Dr. Gregory R. Campbell Department of Anthropology Dr. Gilbert Quintero Department of Anthropology Dr. Noriko Seguchi Department of Anthropology- Kyushu University Dr. Curtis Noonan Center for Environmental Health Services UMI Number: 3628947 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI 3628947 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346 COPYRIGHT by Christina J. Heiner 2014 All Rights Reserved ii Heiner, Christina, PhD Spring 2014 Anthropology Demographic and Epidemiological Changes on the Flathead Reservation 1887-1935 Chairperson: Richard Sattler This dissertation examines the patterns of health among the Salish, Pend d’Oreille, and Kootenai tribes living on the Flathead Reservation in the late 19th and early 20th century. Previous research on early Native American demographic and epidemiological patterns has essentially focused on patterns following European contact to the pre-reservation era, ignoring that Native populations continued to struggle with ill-health and disease under the control of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. This research found while large infectious disease epidemics did not occur after the 1900s, infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and pneumonia were the leading causes of death for all ages on the reservation. In addition, chronic diseases such as heart disease and cancer began to emerge as causes of death. The importance of political and economic factors are stressed as ultimate causes of disease over biological or genetic factors. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................................. v LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... vii CHAPTERS 1 –INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1 2 –THEORY AND METHODS ................................................................................................... 33 3 – THE CHANGING POLITICAL ECONOMY OF THE FLATHEAD RESERVATION TO 1935 ...................................................................................... 61 4 –TRADTIONAL PLATEAU NATIVE MEDICAL BELIEFS AND PRACTICES ................................................................................... 99 5 –POLTICS AND HEALTH CARE ON THE FLATHEAD RESEVATION TO 1935 ......... 125 6 –DEMOGRAPHIC AND MORTALITY CHANGES ON THE FLATHEAD RESERVATION ................................................................................................... 153 7 –DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................. 196 APPENDIX A – ......................................................................................................................... 209 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 226 iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There have been so many people that have helped me to complete my dissertation. First and foremost I would like to thank my chair, Richard Sattler, for his guidance and especially his patience in helping me to complete my dissertation. I would also like to express gratitude to the members on my committee, Professors Greg Campbell, Gil Quintero, Noriko Seguchi, and Curtis Noonan, for their time spent on my project. I owe a huge debt to all the librarians and archivists who assisted me with my research. Thank you to the archivists at the National Archives and Record Administration in Denver for their help in finding and locating sources on the Flathead Reservation. I want to thank the librarians at the Salish and Kootenai College for letting me have access to their archives as well as a listening ear as I was completing my project. Thank you for the archivist at the University of Montana, Donna McCrea, for her help on this project. Family and friends have played an important role in providing me with emotional support and encouragement throughout the duration of my graduate school career. I am especially grateful to my parents Brian and Donna Corum, and my aunts and uncles (especially Don and Val Bell and Carey and Dawson Swanberg) who encouraged me to further my education and to finish this dissertation. I am also grateful to my in-laws, Les and Melodee Heiner, for their support and for babysitting my children many times so I could visit the library to conduct research. Thanks Suzi and Ben Heiner for always being there, Mark Murphy for asking me questions about my project and making me feel important, Joanna Legerski McCormick for your example in excellent scholarship and research, and to April Seegmiller for proofreading several of my papers during graduate school. Thank you Catherine Sanders for being a compassionate and supportive colleague as I finished. Lastly, but never the least, thank you to my awesome husband Aaron for his support and understanding and to my children, Brant, Olivia, Grace and Emma, who encouraged me daily to finish my dissertation. v LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1.1 Plateau Language Groups………………………………………………………..… 12 1.2 Diseases and Epidemics Recorded on the Plateau, 1777-1862………………….… 20 4.1 Select Plants and Treatments……………………………………………………… 112 4.2. Interhemispheric Exchange of Diseases…………………………………………… 118 4.3. Lewis and Clark Population Estimates (Select Groups)…………………………… 122 4.4. Hudson Bay 1827-1830 Censuses (Select Tribes)………………………………… 123 5.1 Diseases and Epidemics Recorded on the Plateau, 1870-1901……………………. 140 5.2 Period Prevalence per 1,000 for Selected Diseases among the Salish, Kootenai, and Pend d’Oreille, 1883-1889…………………………………………………… 143 5.3 Period Prevalence per 1,000 for selected diseases among the Salish, Kootenai, and Pend d’Oreille, 1890-1894, 1898-1899……………………………………….. 144 5.4 Period Prevalence per 1,000 for selected diseases among the Salish, Kootenai, and Pend d’Oreille, 1900-1907…………………………………………………… 145 6.1 Percent of Salish, Pend d’Oreille, and Kootenai Population Change, 1880-1936.. 157 6.2 Crude Death Rates and Crude Birth Rates per 1,000 for the Salish, Kootenai, and Pend d’Oreille Peoples, 1879-1903…………………………………………… 160 6.3 Crude Birth Rates per 1,000, 1904-1935………………………………………….. 164 6.4 Crude Death Rates per 1,000, 1904-1935………………………………………… 169 6.5 Number of Native Deaths on the Flathead Reservation, 1900-1935……………… 172 6.6 Average Infant Mortality Rate Comparison Rates per 1,000, 1910-1939………… 174 6.7 Neonatal and Postnatal Deaths of Infants on Flathead Reservation, 1900-1939….. 175 6.8 Flathead Reservation Leading Cause of Death, 1900-1935………………………. 177 6.9 Flathead Reservation Leading Cause of Death for Males, 1900-1935……………. 178 6.10 Flathead Reservation Leading Cause of Death for Females, 1900-1935………….. 179 vi 6.11 Number of Tuberculosis Deaths by Age Group and Gender……………………… 182 6.12 Tuberculosis Cause-Specific Death Rates, per 100,000………………………….. 183 6.13 Leading Causes of Death for Children 5 and under ……………………………… 190 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1.1 Map of Plateau Tribes………..…………………………………………………….. 9 3.1 Bushels of Oats, Barley and Wheat Produced by Tribal Members, 1875-1904….. 77 3.2 Acres Cultivated on the Flathead Reservation, 1875-1904………………….......... 78 3.3 Horses and Cattle owned by Tribal Members, 1875-1904……………………….. 79 6.1 Crude Death Rates and Crude