Branding Islam: The Strategic Use of Official Religious Discourse by Annelle Rodriguez Sheline B.A. in Conflict Studies, May 2008, New York University M.A. in Political Science, January 2015, The George Washington University A Dissertation submitted to The Faculty of The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 31, 2018 Dissertation directed by Nathan J. Brown Professor of Political Science and International Affairs The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University certifies that Annelle Rodriguez Sheline has passed the Final Examination for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy as of July 23, 2018. This is the final and approved form of the dissertation. Branding Islam: The Strategic Use of Official Religious Discourse Annelle Rodriguez Sheline Dissertation Research Committee: Nathan Brown, Professor of Political Science and International Affairs, Dissertation Director Marc Lynch, Professor of Political Science and International Affairs, Committee Member Harris Mylonas, Associate Professor of Political Science and International Affairs, Committee Member ii © Copyright 2018 by Annelle Sheline All rights reserved iii Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to Daniel T. Rodriguez, without whom it would not have been possible. iv Acknowledgments Thanks are owed to many people that cheered me on during this long marathon; the following are only a few of them. In gratitude to my dissertation committee – Nathan Brown, Marc Lynch, and Harris Mylonas – who offered such unerring guidance. Without Harris’ influence, I might have ended up elsewhere, and most of the people I subsequently describe would not appear below. Marc, I hope to live up to your example of excellence, energy, and efficiency. Nathan, in the midst of serving as president of MESA, a phone call that your son had been in jail, and in the thick of Friday crowds on Bourbon Street, you paused everything upon learning that I would have to retake my minor comprehensive exam, and spread out your bag on the curb to sit me down and make sure I was alright. This gesture sums up my experience of you as my advisor and chair: generous, thoughtful, and ever-ready to help me overcome the next hurdle. Many thanks to Henry Hale and Peter Mandaville, for encouragement throughout, and helping me to cross the finish-line of the defense. To all the friends who proved that the dissertation marathon could be run – Fabi, Dot, Barnett, Scott, Alanna, Madeleine – and all those still on the course – EB, Aparna, Mara, Lilly, Jen, Julian, Rosalie – thanks for running alongside me. Especial thanks to Jessie A., for making the whole process infinitely more fun; Daniel N., for starting me on the right foot; and Abboud K., for reminding me to enjoy the journey. To all those who made dissertation fieldwork such a joy. In Jordan: Lauren and Stephanie for hosting, Omar for phone skills, Soheer and Sohieb for assistance from Amman to Irbid, Sajeda for translations and mosque visits, Anoud for iftars, and special thanks to adventure buddies Phil, Alex, Chris, and Michael. In Oman: Sultan and Samira v for years of guidance, Mohammad for unflagging support, Sugey for opening her home, Hannah for sharing contacts and long drives through the mountains, Heiderose for the paradise of Qantab, and Yvonne for coming all that way. In Morocco: Catherine for being an ideal work partner, Shamineh for unfailing hospitality, Tarik and Manu for kayaking, Ethan for leadership, and Dante for baraka. To the following bad-ass ladies of political science for their academic mentorship: Lisel Hintz, Kristin Fabbe, Ann Wainscott, Callie Jones, and Sarah Feuer. To my Undergraduate Scholars for reminding me why I keep chasing this elusive beast called “academia.” To those who got me through the final harrowing weeks by distracting me with delightful travels: Chantal Berman and Michelle Weitzel, Corinne Miller and Caroline Topouzoglou, and the Fornshell family. To Stephen Duncombe who first floated the idea that a PhD was a great way to go to grad school for “free,” and Robert LaTowsky who first inspired me. To Sam, Bettina, and Elena: I never guessed I would start this program with just one brother and end it with two amazing sisters. To my parents, Drs. Barbara and Jonathan Sheline, thank you for raising me with the confidence that I could pull this off. In submitting this dissertation, I join the proud ranks of the “Doctors Sheline,” although I am the only one devoted to the “long hard boring of hard boards.” To my grandmother Yvonne, the first female Dr. Sheline. And most importantly, to Daniel. Although you maintain that I could have done this without you, your love and unwavering belief in my abilities are all that got me through the tough patches. vi Abstract of Dissertation Branding Islam: The Strategic Use of Official Religious Discourse What explains variation in the resonance of religious messaging produced by the state, or official religious discourse? In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA region), official religious discourse is often assumed to lack credibility, due to the authoritarian character of many Middle Eastern states. As a result, scholars interested in these societies’ religious views tend to focus on the activities and ideologies of Islamist groups, seeing them as a more accurate reflection of public religious sentiment. However, such perspectives overlook the ways in which state institutions shape the religious arena. Islam has interacted with state structures since its earliest expression and throughout its history. In the contemporary Middle East, the state exerts control over institutions of religious education, oversees the training of would-be religious actors, and regulates religious spaces. I add to existing scholarship by proposing an explanation for variation in the credibility, or resonance, of official religious discourse. My research combines two areas of scholarship to explain this observed variation, nation-building and framing theory. Scholars of nation-building have long studied the processes through which political elites inculcate a shared sense of identity; however, such work has less frequently focused on Islam as a key component of national identity. Framing theory has typically been used to study social movements, specifically how articulating a call to action in a specific way can encourage bottom-up participation; I use framing theory to evaluate top-down dynamics, considering how different forms of state discourse can produce different levels of resonance. vii Drawing on data collected during nine months of fieldwork in three Arab monarchies, Jordan, Morocco, and Oman, I examine how political elites sought to disseminate a specific form of religious discourse using the nation-building toolkit, and the extent to which contemporary religious discourse corresponds to that established during the foundational period. Sermons, textbooks, and archival materials provide the content of official religious discourse, while interviews offer insights into the extent to which official Islam resonates with key populations, including religious bureaucrats, educators, students, and diplomats. I assert that the form of official religious discourse established during the nation- building process has path dependent effects on subsequent efforts to use state control of religious discourse. I focus in particular on political elites’ choice to articulate official Islam in either national or universal terms. I find that, despite the general assumption that religion transcends geographic boundaries, framing official Islam as grounded in locally specific heritage is more likely to evoke resonance than framing official Islam in universalistic terms. In addition, if a form of religious discourse is seen as subject to foreign influence, it is more likely to be rejected. These findings have implications for political elites seeking to influence their populations’ religious identity, especially for the purpose of combatting extremism and building support for the regime. Foreign actors that wish to discourage intolerance should avoid contributing to the perception of foreign meddling. Influencing religious messaging requires a generational timescale, and is ill-suited to the short-term game of politics. viii Table of Contents Dedication...........................................................................................................................iv Acknowledgments................................................................................................................v Abstract of Dissertation.....................................................................................................vii Note on transliterations........................................................................................................x Chapter 1: Defining Official Islam.......................................................................................1 Chapter 2: Creating Official Islam.....................................................................................56 Chapter 3: Teaching Official Islam..................................................................................114 Chapter 4: Preaching Official Islam.................................................................................161 Chapter 5: Exporting Official Islam.................................................................................214 Chapter 6: Regretting