P P ERS ROVI P ECTIVES D PROVIDING ING ON THE D THE EFENSE MEANS OF WAR M A CQUISITION E A NS , 1945–2000 , OF W A R PERSPECTIVES ON DEFENSE ACQUISITION U.S. Army 1945–2000 Center of Military History and Industrial College of the Armed Edited by Forces PIN : 081039–000 Shannon A. Brown Providing the Means of War Historical Perspectives on Defense Acquisition, 1945–2000 Shannon A. Brown General Editor UNITED STATES ARMY CENTER OF MILITARY HISTORY AND INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE OF THE ARMED FORCES WASHINGTON, D.C., 2005 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Providing the means of war : historical perspectives on defense acquisition, 1945– 2000 / Shannon A. Brown, general editor. p. cm. 1. United States—Armed Forces—Procurement—History—20th century— Congresses. I. Brown, Shannon A. II. Title. UC263.P79 2005 355.6’212’097309045—dc22 2005042041 First Printing—CMH Pub 70–87–1 Foreword Acquisition as defined by the Department of Defense denotes our national security establishment harnessing the scientific and engineer- ing knowledge of military and civilian professionals to create the tools of modern war. It encompasses research and development, engineering, con- tracting, test and evaluation, fielding, and disposal of weapon systems and other forms of technology that are vital to the nation. The acquisition pro- cess includes resource-management and strategic decisions that determine the new forms of technology that are developed. The Industrial College of the Armed Forces (ICAF)—which is cel- ebrating its eightieth anniversary in 2004—is dedicated to supporting the study of national security decision-making and understanding the vital defense acquisition process that supports it. The U.S. Army Center of Military History (CMH) is committed to having the study of the past inform the decisions of the future. This book, a product of both institu- tions, is an important contribution to understanding the complex relation- ships that characterize the defense acquisition process central to our shared missions and goals. These pages highlight the papers and presentations from the defense acquisition symposium, Providing the Means of War. Held on 10–12 September 2001, the symposium was organized by CMH historians with the assistance of the ICAF faculty. During the second day of the confer- ence, the connections between national security strategy and resource management became the subject of even more reflective discussion as the tragedies of 11 September unfolded. Since the watershed events of that day, the U.S. armed forces have been battling terrorism around the globe and are in the throes of an institutional transformation to meet twenty-first century challenges. The history of acquisition—and the acquisition com- munity—can teach us much about institutional changes, the American response to global threats, and how resources can be best applied to address them. The motto of the Industrial College of the Armed Forces is Industria et Defensio Inseparabiles (“Industry and Defense Are Inseparable”). True to this spirit, the contributions in this volume show that the acquisition process is a shared burden, with both private industry and the American government having important roles to play. We trust that these papers will iii enhance our awareness of this process and of the inseparable partnerships that continue to provide our men and women in uniform with the most modern and capable means of war. Washington, D.C. 15 March 2005 FRANCES C. WILSON JOHN S. BROWN Major General, USMC Brigadier General, USA (Ret.) Commandant Chief of Military History Industrial College of the Armed Forces Preface This book, Providing the Means of War: Historical Perspectives on Defense Acquisition, 1945–2000, is based on the papers presented at an Acquisition History Symposium that took place on 10–12 September 2001. While acquisition is always a critical and timely subject, this con- ference gained special meaning because of the dates on which it was held. On the second day of the conference, two planes slammed into the World Trade Center in New York, a third smashed into the Pentagon in Washington, and a fourth crashed into a field in Pennsylvania. For those who might be tempted to think of the symposium as an academic exer- cise, the events that took place on 11 September serve as a reminder that the outcomes of the defense acquisition process have sweeping strategic consequences. For good or ill, our country and the men and women in the armed forces depend on the products and services obtained through this process for the defense of the nation. While acquisition is frequently a contentious process, at once political, technical, and managerial, the chap- ters presented here illustrate both the remarkable achievements of the sys- tem and the ongoing struggle to transform to support the changing needs of the military. As a nation, we have experienced remarkable changes in technology, doctrine, and capabilities during the fifty-five years following World War II. The security environment of the first years of the twenty- first century calls for continuing, indeed, increased flexibility, speed, and the capacity to change. The Department of Defense (DoD) is facilitating an understanding of the past through the Acquisition History Project. This symposium repre- sented the first major product of that ongoing project. The defense com- munity, we hope, will build on the experiences of others, for the benefit of those who depend on the capabilities developed by the DoD and its indus- trial partners. The Defense Acquisition History Project is one way for the acquisition community to learn about the past and illuminate our under- standing of contemporary and future issues. The project is truly a joint effort, looking back at case histories from the Army, Navy, and Air Force, as well as from the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD). Creating and nurturing joint endeavors often takes vision and per- sistence. This Acquisition History Project owes its existence to the late Dr. James H. Edgar. It was his vision, creativity, and persistence that pulled the services and OSD together to sponsor this important effort. The acquisition community lost a valued member and a dear friend with Jim’s untimely passing not long after this symposium. A long-time acquisi- tion professional and a Senior Executive in the Department of the Army, Dr. Edgar is represented in this volume by his article, “The Origins and Impact of the Defense Acquisition Workforce Improvement Act.” It is fitting that Dr. Edgar’s chapter deals with the acquisition workforce. Not only was he instrumental in the crafting of this legislation during his time on Capitol Hill, but he also cared deeply for the acquisition workforce and always strove to advance the capabilities of that workforce so that it might better serve the nation’s needs. He was always interested in education and training for the workforce, and he personally loved learning. It was in the convergence of his love of learning and the needs of the workforce that this project began, and it is only fitting that this first volume be dedicated to Dr. Edgar. He touched many lives in many ways, and this project is only one of his many concrete works by which he will be remembered. Shortly after 11 September, our nation engaged in military action in Afghanistan. Our men and women brought with them their skill and determination, plus the strategies and the military capabilities developed by the Department of Defense and the industrial base that supports it. The national security community demonstrated remarkable flexibility and ability. History teaches us that we have many names for our continu- ous efforts to maximize and make effective our DoD processes. Whether called revolution, reform, transformation, or any other name, what we do to maximize the effectiveness of defense acquisition really matters. In the memory of visionaries like Dr. Jim Edgar, and to those who depend on the fruits of our work, we look back at history, to learn better how to approach the future. September 2003 LINDA S. BRANDT Industrial College of the Armed Forces vi Contents Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . 1 INTRODUCTION Shannon A. Brown................................ 5 DEFENSE ACQUISITION HISTORY SYMPOSIUM KEYNOTE ADDRESS J. Ronald Fox .................................... 19 PART I: INTO THE COLD WAR INTO THE COLD WAR: AN OVERVIEW OF ACQUISITION IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE, 1945–1958 Elliott V. Converse III ............................. 27 SOSUS, THE NAVY, AND BELL LABS Gary E. Weir .................................... 47 WEAPONS, “WEAK” STATES, AND THE MILITARY CONTRACT SYSTEM: THE CASE OF RAND AND THE AIR FORCE, 1945–1950 Martin J. Collins.................................. 61 PART II: THE MCNAMARA LEGACY ACQUISITION IN THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE, 1959–1968: THE MCNAMARA LEGACY Walter S. Poole................................... 79 BUILDING MISSILES: CONCURRENCY AND THE LEGACY OF THE EARLY AIR FORCE ICBM PROGRAM John Lonnquest .................................. 97 SEEDS OF A REVOLUTION: MARITIME UAVS IN THE 1960S Thomas P. Ehrhard................................ 111 vii PART III: RETRENCHMENT AND REFORM DEFENSE ACQUISITION IN THE 1970S: RETRENCHMENT AND REFORM Shannon A. Brown with Walton S. Moody . 141 MONEY, MANAGEMENT, AND MANPOWER: IMPORTANT VARIABLES IN THE DESIGN AND ACQUISITION OF OLIVER HAZARD PERRY-CLASS FRIGATES Timothy L. Francis................................ 169 MOVING TARGET: THE u .s . ARMY INFANTRY FIGHTING VEHICLE PROGRAM IN THE 1970S W. Blair Haworth, Jr. .............................