Emergence of Hinduism in Gandhāra An analysis of material culture Zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades eingereicht am Fachbereich Geschichts- und Kulturwissenschaften der Freien Universität Berlin Im August 2010 Vorgelegt von Abdul Samad aus Kohat, Pakistan. 1. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Harry Falk. 2. Gutachterin: PD Dr. Ute Franke. Disputation: 24.02.2011 Contents Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Gandhāra – melting pot of cultures ................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Gandhāra and Buddhism .................................................................................................................... 2 1.3. Gandhāra and Hinduism ..................................................................................................................... 3 1.4. Summary of the previous research work on Hinduism ...................................................................... 4 1.5. Outline of the present research work ................................................................................................ 4 Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 7 The initial stage of Hinduism in Gandhāra ........................................................................................... 7 2.1. Literary sources .................................................................................................................................. 7 2.1.1. Hindu gods in ancient grammatical literature ............................................................................. 7 2.1.2. Hindu Gods in the Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra ..................................................................................... 7 2.1.3. Indian religion in Greek literature ............................................................................................... 9 2.1.4. Changing concepts of Kubera: From a Vedic god to a Buddhist deity ........................................ 9 2.2. Archaeological sources ..................................................................................................................... 13 2.2.1. Miniature votive tanks from Gandhāra ..................................................................................... 13 2.3. Numismatical sources ...................................................................................................................... 20 2.3.1. Short Note on the Early Coins of Gandhāra .............................................................................. 20 2.3.2. The legacy of Indian “Gymnosophists” through Greek sources ................................................ 23 2.4. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 27 Chapter 3 ......................................................................................................................................... 29 The Contribution of the Kuṣāṇas to early Hinduism in Gandhāra ........................................................ 29 3.1. The origin of the Kuṣāṇa dynasty ..................................................................................................... 29 3.2. The religious background of the Kuṣāṇas ......................................................................................... 30 3.2.1. The Kuṣāṇas in Bactria ............................................................................................................... 30 3.2.2. The Kuṣāṇas in Gandhāra .......................................................................................................... 31 3.3. The religious policy of Kujula Kadphises....................................................................................... 32 3.4. Innovation under Vima Kadphises ................................................................................................ 33 i 3.5. Experiments of Kaniṣka ................................................................................................................ 33 3.6. Huviṣka and Early Hinduism ......................................................................................................... 34 3.6.1. Important coins of Huviṣka showing Hindu and local deities ................................................... 35 3.7. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 36 Chapter 4 ......................................................................................................................................... 38 Analyses of the OHÞO image on early Kuṣāṇa coins ........................................................................... 38 4.1. Wēś iconography on Kuṣāṇa coins ................................................................................................... 39 4.2. Elements and sources of the Wēś iconography ............................................................................... 39 4.3. The role of the Scythians in the genesis of Wēś’s iconography ....................................................... 41 4.4. Wēś as Vāyu ..................................................................................................................................... 42 4.5. Wēś as Śiva ....................................................................................................................................... 43 4.6. The development of Wēś images on Kuṣāṇa coinage ...................................................................... 45 4.7. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 46 Chapter 5 ......................................................................................................................................... 56 Śiva Iconography in Gandhāra .......................................................................................................... 56 5.1. Images of Gandhāran Śiva ................................................................................................................ 57 5.1.1. Number of heads ....................................................................................................................... 58 5.1.2. Headdress .................................................................................................................................. 61 5.1.3. Eyes ............................................................................................................................................ 62 5.1.4. Arms .......................................................................................................................................... 63 5.1.5. Attire of Śiva .............................................................................................................................. 64 5.1.6. Ornaments of Śiva in Gandhāran iconography ......................................................................... 64 5.1.7. Ithyphallic .................................................................................................................................. 64 5.2. Śiva from Berlin Museum ................................................................................................................. 65 5.3. Umā-Maheśvara ............................................................................................................................... 66 5.4. Śiva image from the Julian Sherrier Collection................................................................................. 68 5.5. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 68 Chapter 6 ......................................................................................................................................... 71 Viṣṇuism in Gandhāra ....................................................................................................................... 71 ii 6.1. The beginnings: Agathokles coins from Ai-Khanum ......................................................................... 72 6.3. Huviṣka coins with representations of Vaiṣṇava deities .................................................................. 75 6.4. Vasudeva coinage ............................................................................................................................. 76 6.5. Garuḍa .............................................................................................................................................. 77 6.6. Varāha .............................................................................................................................................. 79 6.7. Kṛṣṇa fighting with Keśin .................................................................................................................. 81 6.8. Viṣṇu statue from the Julian Sherrier Collection .............................................................................. 83 6.9. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................