The Use of Hemiepiphytes as Craft Fibres by Indigenous Communities in the Colombian Amazon María Paula Balcázar Vargas and Tinde van Andel Abstract Aerial roots of hemiepiphytes are used throughout the to earn a living with NTFPs are quite limited, as it may Amazon Basin for house construction, basketry, traps and take days to travel to a market place. High transport costs furniture. Here we describe how 15 species of hemiepi- make it hard to compete with the same products harvest- phytes are extracted by six indigenous groups in the Co- ed closer to urban settlements (Shanley et al. 2002a, van lombian Amazon for traditional artefacts, commercial crafts Andel 2000). For isolated indigenous communities, wild- and as raw material for the furniture industry. Indigenous life is often the only product worthwhile marketing, since classification systems, use preferences, and the influence its unit price is high and wild animals around urban settle- of the craft trade on indigenous livelihoods are discussed. ments have become rare (Davies 2002, van Andel et al. The craft trade seems to improve the living conditions of 2003). local communities by making them less dependent from local guerrilla and coca production. However, we seriously There seem to be exceptions to this phenomenon. The question the sustainability of current fibre extraction. De- harvest of aerial roots of hemiepiphytes for the manu- signing adequate management plans for commercial he- facture of wicker furniture and basketry is a promising miepiphytes is essential to guarantee the future supply of business in the Amazon Basin (Baluarte & del Castillo these valuable non-timber forest products. 2001, Hall 2000, Hoffman 1997, Plowden et al. 2003, Whitehead & Godoy 1991). Hemiepiphytes are relative- ly abundant and their aerial roots can easily be pulled Introduction down. The mother plant generally withstands the harvest: it stays connected in the canopy and produces new roots The harvest and trade in non-timber forest products (NT- (Plowden et al. 2003, Putz & Holbrook 1986). Internation- FPs) contribute greatly to rural livelihoods worldwide, and al demand for wicker furniture is increasing (Baluarte & their harvest seems much less environmentally destruc- del Castillo 2001, Plowden et al. 2003, Whitehead & Go- tive than timber extraction, cash crop agriculture or cattle doy 1991). The roots can be harvested year-round and ranching. This has led to the assumption that increased commercialisation of NTFPs could promote both eco- nomic development and forest conservation (Nepstad & Schwartzman 1992, Plotkin & Famolare 1992). Recently, the high expectations that NTFPs could safeguard tropical Correspondence rain forests have been somewhat tempered (Ruiz-Perez María Paula Balcázar Vargas, Prins Berhardlaan 11, 1111EP & Arnold 1996, Shanley et al. 2002a, Ticktin 2004). Low Diemen, THE NETHERLANDS. [email protected] species abundance in highly diverse rain forests means a low availability of the extracted product per hectare, which may result in overexploitation if there is a strong mar- ket demand (Boot 1997, Clark & Sunderland 2004, Hall & Bawa 1993, Peters 1996). Many attempts to commer- cialise NTFPs have failed because of a lack of well-devel- oped markets (Clay 1992, Newton et al. 2002, Shanley Ethnobotany Research & Applications 3:243-260(2005) et al. 2002b). The possibilities for remote forest-dwellers http://hdl.handle.net/10125/175 244 Ethnobotany Research & Applications require extensive manual labour in their conversion into for craft making. This is understandable, because of the the final product. When the price for raw material is high difficulties in gaining access to the canopy and collecting enough, people often protect trees heavily colonised by the specimens (Moffet 2000). This means, however, that hemiepiphytes. They prefer harvesting aerial roots for the a group of plants that plays a major role in the livelihoods following years above earning once by selling its timber. of indigenous peoples has remained neglected. This example shows the potential of harvesting NTFPs as a means of forest conservation (Hofmann 1997, van For several decades, the indigenous population of Colom- Andel 2000). bia has faced growing economic and cultural pressure, putting the retention of their traditional knowledge of plant In contrast to true epiphytes, which spend their entire lives use in peril (Rodríguez 2003, Sánchez 2005). Due to sub- on tree branches without touching the soil, hemiepiphytes stantial changes in settlement patterns and greater inte- maintain soil contact for at least part of their life by means gration in the market economy, traditional relations with of aerial roots. Primary hemiepiphytes start their life as nature have transformed and pressure on natural resourc- epiphytes, germinating on a host tree and sending down es has increased (van der Hammen 2003). The ongoing aerial roots to the ground to take up nutrients (Benzing turmoil in violence and civil warfare has paralysed large 1990, Putz & Holbrook 1986). Some primary hemiepi- segments of the political, economic and social system phytes may strangle or kill their host (e.g., Clusia spp., in Colombia (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Ficus spp.); others never do so (Philodendron spp.). Sec- www.unodc.org). In fact, the guerrillas of the Colombian ondary hemiepiphytes germinate on the forest floor be- Revolutionary Armed Forces (FARC) control large parts fore climbing a host tree, keeping their roots connected of the Colombian Amazon. Although the national army re- to the soil during their entire life cycle (Kress 1986, Mof- cently recovered part of the Caquetá department (Angrist fett 2000). In the Neotropics, this type is represented by & Kugler 2004), the region remains a “department of con- several genera in the families Araceae and Cyclanthace- cern” by the UNHCR (www.reliefweb.int). The trade and ae. Some primary and secondary hemiepiphytes produce cultivation of coca (Erythroxylum coca Lam.) is a major strong, pliable aerial roots, used since ancestral times by source of rural income in the Colombian Amazon (Angrist indigenous people as lashing material in construction and & Kugler 2005, Villalón 2005). Alternative economic de- handicrafts (Bennett 1992, Gentry 1992, Knap-Vispo et velopment programs have produced few tangible results al. 2003, Roth 1924). The furniture workshops that have so far (Paredes et al. 2003). emerged throughout the Amazon Basin predominantly use the roots of Heteropsis flexuosa (H.B.K.) G.S. Bun- Here we present the results of ethnobotanical fieldwork ting (Araceae) and Clusia spp. (Clusiaceae) as raw mate- by the first author from 1998 to 2001 among six indig- rial (Hoffman 1997, van Andel 2000, Wallace & Ferreira enous groups in the Colombian Amazon. We try to pro- 2000). vide answers to the following questions: Which species of hemiepiphytes are collected for craft making? What is the Colombia is one of the most species-rich areas for Ara- importance of these plants in the subsistence economy of ceae, and the Western Amazon harbours the greatest di- local communities? Does the trade in these NTFPs con- versity of Heteropsis species (Croat 1992). Detailed stud- tribute to improved livelihoods, sustainable forest man- ies were carried out on hemiepiphytic Araceae in Ecuador agement and the preservation of indigenous culture? Our (Leimbeck & Balslev 2001) and on Heteropsis in Venezu- results show that, with a sophisticated marketing of indig- ela (Knab-Vispo et al. 2003), Guyana (Hall 2000, Hoffman enous crafts, aerial root extraction could offer indigenous 1997) and Brazil (Plowden et al. 2003, Wallace & Ferreira communities a viable economic alternative to illegal coca 2000). Little is known, however, about the abundance and production and more independence from guerrilla activi- diversity of these plants in the Colombian Amazon. Even ties. To prevent depletion of this valuable resource, how- the most recent vegetation studies in that area (Duque ever, root harvesting should be ecologically sustainable. 2004, Villegas et al. 2004) did not include hemiepiphytes their botanical inventories. Study Sites Ethnobotanical research in the Colombian Amazon has focused on medicinal plants (Schultes & Raffauf 1990), Fieldwork took place in three different sites within the Co- palms (Bernal 1992) and woody plants (Acero 1979, Gar- lombian Amazon: the middle Caquetá River, Amacayacu zón & Macuritofe 1992, Glenboski 1983, La Rotta 1982, National Natural Park and the Brazo Amanavén (Figure La Rotta et al. 1987). Studies on indigenous crafts and cul- 1). The middle Caquetá River is situated in the lowlands ture report only few hemiepiphytes, but scientific names of the Colombian Amazon, between Araracuara and the are often lacking or incorrect (González 1989, Ortiz 1994, Metá Creek, Department of Amazonas (0º30’-1º00’ S and Reichel 1987). With the exception of Cárdenas & López 72º30’-71º30’ W). Altitude is about 180 m above sea level; (2000), even the most recent studies on NTFPs in the Co- the mean annual temperature ca. 26ºC. Annual rainfall av- lombian Amazon (Duivenvoorden et al. 2001, Sánchez erages 3060 mm (Duivenvoorden & Lips 1993). The veg- 2005) have paid little attention to the use of aerial roots etation is characterised by species-rich humid tropical for- http://hdl.handle.net/10125/175 Balcázar and van Andel - The Use of Hemiepiphytes as Craft Fibres by 245 Indigenous Communities in the Colombian Amazon Colom bia V ICH AD Bogatá A C um aral Yuri (Piaroa) (Piapoco) ven m ana Puerto o A B raz Inírida G uaviare R iver 2° LA G UY C AN AQ A UE TA Araracuara 0° (H uitoto) M etá Aduche (Yukuna) (Andoke) C aq Biogeographic Zones ueta AM R AZ iver O rinoquia O N 2° AS La G uyana N Am acayacu La Amazonia National Park Am acayacu 0 200 km A m azonas R iv Leticia (Tikuna) 74° er Figure 1. Colombia with three biogeographic zones and study site locations. http://hdl.handle.net/10125/175 246 Ethnobotany Research & Applications est, with permanently inundated swamps, floodplain for- area, hunting, fishing, and collecting NTFPs is allowed for est and tierra firme forests (Duque et al.