Hong Kong Cinema under “One Country, Two Systems”: Production, Reception and Policy Hongjin (Hilary) He M.A. (University of Western Sydney) This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, The University of Western Sydney, School of Communication Arts & Center for Cultural Research, 2011. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research project would not have been possible without the support of the three- year (2008-2011) University of Western Sydney International Postgraduate Research Scholarship and five-month (Sept. 2009 – Jan. 2010) Resident Graduate Scholarship provided by the David C. Lam Institute for East-West Studies (LEWI), Hong Kong Baptist University. Special thanks also to the Centre for Cultural Research (CCR), UWS and the Advanced Cultural Studies Institute of Sweden (ACSIS), for sponsoring my trip to the Media & Popular Culture PhD course at the Department of Cultural Studies (Tema Q), Linköping University, Sweden in April-May, 2010. I benefited from a series of workshops and seminars conducted by professors and researchers at the Centre for Cultural Research and conversations with them. Therefore, I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Kay Anderson, Professor Ien Ang, Professor Tony Bennett, Professor Bob Hodge, Professor Meagan Morris, Associate Professor Brett Neilson, Associate Professor Greg Noble, Dr Megan Watkins and Dr Tim Winter. My sincere thanks to co-supervisor Professor Peter Hutchings for my first year and Professor Emilie Yeh Yueh-yu at HKBU for her advice during my residency there. Deepest gratitude is also due to my succeeding co-supervisor Professor David Rowe who was abundantly helpful and offered invaluable assistance and guidance with my writing. Last but not least, my principal supervisor Associate Professor Hart Cohen, who had guided me to the pursuit of a PhD and the field of academia for eight years, beginning while supervising my thesis for a Masters degree at UWS. His patience, encouragement and knowledge have helped me to change my life. Finally, I wish to express my love and gratitude to my parents HE Jiannan, WU Fei, and my husband XU Hongqin, for their understanding and endless love, for the duration of my studies. ii Statement of Authentication The work presented in this thesis is to the best of my knowledge, original except as acknowledged in the text. I hereby declare that I have not submitted this material, in full or in part, for a degree at this or any other institution. Hongjin HE (何虹瑾) ………………………………………………………….. (Signature) iii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures viii Abbreviations xiii Abstract xiv Chapter One: Introduction___________________________________________1_ 1. Complex and Contingent ―One Country, Two Systems‖ Policy 2 2. A Cultural Studies Approach to the ―One Country, Two Systems‖ Conjuncture 6 3. Overview of the Thesis Structure and Content 9 Chapter Two: _______________________________ _______21_ Hong Kong Cinema Seeking a New Identity: Literature Review and Research Methods Chapter Three:_____________________________________________________35_ “One Movie, Two Versions”: Post-1997 Hong Kong Cinema in the Mainland Why Should We Care About the Cut Version? 36 1. Two Versions as a Commercial Expediency: 41 A Result of Economic Collaboration 1.1 Multiple Versions as a Survival Tactic of Hong Kong Cinema 42 1.2 Hong Kong Movies Metamorphosis in the Mainland 49 2. Two Versions Highlights the Political Divergence: 54 A Reflection of HK-PRC Relationship 2.1 Provoking Rather Than Persecuted: 54 The ―Category E‖ Idea in Hong Kong Movies 2.2 Differences in Film Regulatory Regimes: 61 The Film Rating System vs. Censorship 3. The Impacts of Two Versions On 68 Hong Kong Film Consumption and Production 3.1 Consumption Dilemma: The Theatrical 69 Censored Version vs. the Pirated ―Authentic‖ Version 3.2 Disappearing ―Two-versions‖: Indication of Self-censorship 76 Conclusion 81 iv Chapter Four:______________________________________________________83 _ Rise of “Kong Girl” in Co-Productions: Mainland Actresses Reconfiguring Hong Kong Cinema Thriving Co-Production: Is Hong Kong Cinema Becoming Less ―Hong Kong‖? 85 1. The Mainland Actress as a Token 88 In Hong Kong-Mainland Co-Productions 1.1 Cross-Border Film Co-Production in the PRC: 89 From Filming Location to Film Market 1.2 Functional ―Kong Girls‖ in the Masculine Hong Kong Cinema 96 2 The Mainland Actress as a Stepping Stone 101 In Hong Kong Film Industry Reconfiguration 2.1 Modernising the Country (Girl): 102 My Dream Girl as a New Foreign-market Movie 2.2 When Collaborator Becomes Contender: 109 Mainland Actress as the Real Winner in My Name is Fame 3. The Mainland Actresses as Hallmark in the Era of Integration 115 3.1 Northward Hong Kong Filmmakers: 115 Making Sense of the Changing Mainland 3.2 Southward Mainlander Actresses: 121 Making the Best of the ―Unchanged‖ Hong Kong Conclusion 128 Chapter Five:___________________________________________________ __ 131 “Not Made for the PRC”: Efforts to Keep Hong Kong Cinema Unchanged Is Transnational Hong Kong Cinema Becoming ―Half PRC, Half Local?‖ 133 1. Becoming Global: More Problems Than It Solved 138 1.1 Emulating and Embracing Hollywood to Survive It 139 1.2 Representing Hong Kong in the International Arena 146 2. Becoming “One Country”: Reluctance to Reconciliation 151 2.1 Gangster/Crime Movies: Anachronism as Resistance to Change 151 v 2.2 Ghost/Horror Movies: Haunted by the Changing Present 157 3. Becoming “Hong Kong” (Again): Preserving and Persevering 163 3.1 Government Subsidised Hong Kong Films 164 3.2 ―Hong Kong Specificity‖ As Guaranteed by ―Two Systems‖ 168 Conclusion 174 Chapter Six_______________________________________________________177_ “Chineseness-es” Outside Mainland China: Chinese Diasporas through Post-1997 Hong Kong Cinema Can the ―Chineseness‖ of Hong Kong Cinema Reinforce its Specificity? 179 1. Macao：An “Exemplary” Special Administration Region 183 1.1 Portuguese Macao in Hong Kong Films 184 1.2 Macao SAR: the Gaming Resort of the PRC 192 2. Taiwan: “One China, Different Interpretations” 198 2.1 Prince of Tears: 1950s ―White Terror‖ in Taiwan 199 Under Martial Law 2.2 Black Gold and Ballistic: Political Corruption and 203 the 2004 Election Farce in Democratic Taiwan 3. Singapore and Malaysia: One Chinese Culture, Flexible Affiliations 212 3.1 From Malay to Chinese Language: 213 Renascent Hong Kong-Singaporean Films 3.2 Malaysian Chinese Cinema in the Context of Support 218 By Hong Kong Conclusion 222 Chapter Seven______________________________________________________ 225 Films For (and By) a “Culturally Unified” China: The Hong Kong Martial Arts Film as Pan-Chinese Cinema Pan-Chinese Cinema: a Fourth Entry under the Rubric of ―Chinese Cinemas‖? 228 vi 1． Screening Ancient China: Imagining a Unitary Homeland 235 In the Historical Setting 1.1 Martial Arts Films as the Emerging Pan-Chinese Blockbusters 236 1.2 Peter Chan Ho-sun: From a Pan-Asian to 244 A Pan-Chinese Cinema Model 2． Reinterpreting National Cultural Heritage: 251 Pan-Chinese Film Adaptations of Chinese Classics 2.1 Romance of Three Kingdoms: Reflections on a Divided China 252 2.2 Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio: 259 Naissance of Chinese Fantasy Genre 3. Marketing Cultural Nationalism: the Reviving Kung Fu Craze 265 3.1 Donnie Yen: the New Kung Fu Icon of Pan-Chinese Cinema 266 3.2 Final Curtain or Resurgence? 272 Hong Kong’s Presence in Pan-Chinese Kung Fu Films Conclusion 279 Chapter Eight: Conclusion_________________________________________ _282 1. How is Hong Kong Cinema Influenced by the Policies? 282 2. ―One Country, Two Systems‖ Reflected in Hong Kong Cinema 287 References 292 Appendix: 315 A. Filmography 315 B. Publications during the Candidature 322 vii List of Figures Figure 3.1-2 43 Stills from the two versions of God of Gamblers III (1991), starring the Mainland actress Gong Li (left) and the Taiwan actress Fang Jiwei (Right) Figure 3.3 46 Still from Running On Karma, Biggie and the female police officer Figure 3.4 46 Still from Running On Karma, Biggie sees the female police officer’s karma from her previous life Figure3.5-6 50 Movie Posters for an adult-only Hong Kong movie Naked Ambition (left) and its Mainland version, the morality tale Inescapable Snare (right) Figure 3.7 56 Still from Exiled (2006), the car number plate ―MF-97-99‖ Figure 3.8 56 Still from Men Suddenly in Black (2003), the car number plate ―CH 6489‖ Figure 3.9 60 Still from Election 2, the PRC Public Security Bureau chief (standing) coercing the protagonist to be the puppet chairman of the Hong Kong triad society Figure 3.10 67 Still from Lust, Caution (2007), the female lead played by Mainland actress Tang Wei, telling the Japanese collaborator ―Go quick!‖ before the planned assassination Figure 3.11 74 Movie Poster of Shinjuku Incident (2009, starring Jackie Chan) Figure 4.1 100 DVD cover of Farewell My Concubine (1993) starring Hong Kong actor Leslie Cheung Kwok-Wing and Mainland actress Gong Li Figure 4.2 103 Movie poster of My Dream Girl (2003): the image of Mainland actress Zhao Wei changes from a rustic Mainland girl (left) to a stylish urban lady (right) viii Figure 4.3 105 Mainland actress Qin Hailu in Durian Durian (2000), winner of the Best Picture award at the 38th Taiwan Golden Horse Awards, the Best Actress and Best New Performer awards Figure 4.4 108 DVD Cover of Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000) starring Mainland Actress Zhang Ziyi (top), Malaysian Actress Michelle Yeoh (middle), and Hong Kong megastar Chou Yun-Fat Figure 4.5 110 DVD cover for My Name is Fame (2006)