Durham E-Theses Early Islamic Oman (ca - 622/280-893) : a political history. al-Rawas, Isam Ali Ahmad How to cite: al-Rawas, Isam Ali Ahmad (1990) Early Islamic Oman (ca - 622/280-893) : a political history., Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1497/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 EARLY ISLAMIC OMAN (ca - 622/280-893) a political history by 'Ism 'Ali Ahmed al-Rawas The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Arts in the University of Durham for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Society Durham October 1990 ABSTRACT This thesis is an attempt to provide a comprehensive overview of Omani political history from the advent of Islam until the collapse of the second Ib—adl. - imamate in 280/983. The work commences with a review of the political situation in pre- Islamic Oman, with special emphasis on the arrival of the Azd and other Arab tribes in Oman. The Islamicization of Oman and its early relations with the Islamic central authorities in Medina are dealt with extensively, and the position of Oman during the Umayyad caliphate is discussed in depth. The relationship between the Omanis and the Khawarij is reappraised. The middle section of the thesis deals with the foundation of the Ib—adi. school in Basra, the spread of Ibacir teachings in Oman, and the concept of imamate according to Ib-i.dr doctrines. The heavy involvement of the Azd tribe in the promulgation of Bid teachings is highlighted. The establishment of the first Ibadr imamate (132-134/750-752) is one of the most important events in Omani history, and this momentous occurrence is examined at length. The rise of the second Ib gcri. imamate and the policies of its various imams are covered extensively; the thesis concludes with the civil war and the collapse of this imamate in 280/893. i CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT i DEDICATION vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS x ABBREVIATIONS xi TRANSLITERATION Xi i INTRODUCTION xiii PART I CHAPTER I Oman in pre-Islamic times 1 1.1 The Geography of Oman 2 1.2 Regional and physical features of Oman 4 1.3 The ancient history of Oman 7 1.3.1 Magan 7 1.3.2 Maritime 8 1.4 Azd migration to Oman 10 1.5 The principal settlement of Omani tribes 12 1.6 Notes 18 CHAPTER II The Islamicization of Oman 22 2.1 Oman on the Eve of Islam 24 2.2 The Islamicization of Oman 27 2.3 The Azd delegations to Medina 29 2.4 The arrival of (Amr b. al-`As in Oman 31 2.5 Oman during Abu Bakes caliphate 36 2.6 The Riddah Movement in Oman 38 2.6.1 The local Omani version 43 2.6.2 The role of Lacjit b. Malik al-Azdi 49 2.7 Notes 65 CHAPTER III Oman's relations with the Umayyads and the Ithawa-rij in the second half of the first century Hijrah 76 3.1 The relations between Oman and the Umayyad caliphate 77 11 _ _ 3.2 The expedition of al-Qasim al-Muzani to Oman 84 3.3 Oman and the earliest Khawirij 90 3.4 Notes 97 CHAPTER IV The foundation of the Ibidiyyah 105 4.1 The fundamental dogmas of Islam from the 'bacli point of view 115 4.2 The political theory of the Ibadiyyah 117 4.3 Notes 118 PART H _ - CHAPTER V The spread of Ibadi teaching in Oman 122 5.1 Notes 130 CHAPTER VI The imamate in Iba-di- thought 135 6.1 The definition of the imamate 136 6.2 The division of the Ibgdi imamate 139 6.2.1 The stage of concealment 139 6.2.2 The activitist' imamate 144 6.2.3 The defence imamate 146 6.2.4 The declaration imamate 147 6.3 The selection of the imam and the personal qualities required for the office 150 6.3.1 The attributes of the imam 150 6.3.2 The installation of the imam and his oath 151 6.3.3 Deposing of an imam 152 6.4 Notes 154 CHAPTER VII The establishment of the first Ibidi imamate and its fall, 132-134/750-752 158 7.1 The general conditions of the Islamic caliphate prior to the rise of the first Iba-di imamate 159 7.2 The establishment of the first Ibadi imamate 161 7.3 The Imam al-Julandi b. Mas`u-d 166 7.4 The election of Imam al-Julandi167 7.5 The conflict between the Sufriyyah and Iba-diyyah 171 7.6 The battle of Julfa-r and the fall of the first imamate 172 7.7 The internal policy of the first Ibadi imamate 176 7.8 The organisation of the Iba-di military (shurah) 179 7.9 Notes 182 111 - - CHAPTER VIII The rise of the second Ibadi imamate, 177/793 189 8.1 Oman between the period of the first and second Ibkli imamates190 8.2 The establishment of the second 'bad imamate 198 8.2.2 The first attempt to restore the Ibi:cli imamate 199 8.2.2 The Manh meeting-203 8.3 The imamate of Muhammad b. Abi `Affan 205 8.3.1 The dispute over the imamate of Muhammad b. `Af6n- , 209 : - 8.3.2 The deposition of Ibn Alm Affan from the imamate 212 8.4 The imamate of al-W;rith b. ICa`b (179-193/795-807) 214 8.4.1 Internal policy _ - 216 8.4.2 The relations of the Ibadi imamate with the Abbasid caliphate 218 8.4.3 The death of Imam al-Warith b. Ka`b226 8.5 The imamate of Ghassan b. `Abdulla-h al-Yahmadt 226 (192-208/808-823)231 8.5.1 Internal and external policies of Imam Ghass -dn 231 8.5.2 The external policy of the imamate 231 8.5.3 Trade and agricultural economy 234 8.5.4 Religious policy 236 8.6 The imamate of `Abd al-Malik b. klumayd (208-226/823-840) 237 8.6.1 Internal policy 239 8.6.2 Intellectual activities 241 8.7 The imamate of al-Muhann61 b. Jayfar (226-237/840-851) 242 8.7.1 The internal policy of Imam al-Muhanna b. Jayfar 244 8.7.2 Internal opposition 245 8.7.3 The Julandi revolts- 246 r . 8.7.4 Mahrah tribes and the Ibach Imamate 247 8.7.5 The intellectual activities of Imam al-Muhanna's imamate 249 8.8 Notes 252 CHAPTER IX The civil war and the collapse of the second Ib-adi imamate 268 9.1 The rule of Imam al-Salt, 237-273/851-885 269 9.2 The most important historical events of al-Sales imamate 269 9.3 Imam al-Salt's external policy 271 9.4 Civil war 275 9.5 The imamate of Rashid b. al-Nazr, 273-77/885-90 283 9.6 The revolt against Itishid's imamate and the beginning of civil war 286 iv 9.7 The deposition of Rishid- b. al4nTazr, 277/890 291 9.8 The imamate of `Azza-n b. Tamim, 277-280/890-893 292 9.8.1 Internal policy 293 9.9 The battle of al-Q', 278/891 297 9.10 Abbasid intervention, 280/893 299 9.10.1 The cause of results of the collapse of the second Ibi.di imamate 307 9.10.2 The reasonsfor the fall of the second Iba-di imamate 307 9.11 Notes 311 CONCLUSION 323 BIBLIOGRAPHY 326 V Dedication This thesis is dedicated to the memory of my mother, who departed this world when I was a child, and to the souls of the loved ones I have lost during the course of this study. It is also dedicated to my father for his continual moral support. vi Acknowledgements First of all, praise be to God, without Whose decree and determining this work could not have been accomplished. Many people have helped me in the course of my research. Since it is impossible in this short space to mention each one individually, I would like to extend my thanks to all of them, and I ask those whose names do not appear here to forgive me. First and foremost, I owe a great debt of thanks to my supervisor, Professor G. Rex Smith, for his diligent supervision, constructive comments, inspiring encouragement and active interest throughout the various stages of my work. I would also like to place on record my deep gratitude to Sultan Qaboos University in Oman for providing me with the financial support which has enabled me to complete this work.