The Rhetoric of Leadership in Xenophon’s Anabasis Jennifer Anne Winter Royal Holloway, University of London Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy 1 Declaration of Authorship I, Jennifer Anne Winter, hereby declare that this thesis and the work presented in it is entirely my own. Where I have consulted the work of others, this is always clearly stated. Signed: Jennifer Winter Date: 25/02/2016 2 Abstract This thesis is a narratological and rhetorical study of the speeches made by leaders in the Anabasis as attempts at persuasion. It aims at interpreting the function of the speeches by linking a leader‟s use of rhetoric to the success or failure of his leadership. This thesis closely examines how the speeches relate to the narrative and how the narrator guides the reader‟s interpretation of speech, speaker and audience. It applies the rhetorical division of the three modes of persuasion, logos, ethos and pathos, to the examination of the speeches, bringing out contrasts and similarities in how different leaders respond verbally to comparable situations. This thesis proposes that Xenophon uses the speeches with three chief roles or effects in mind. Firstly, the speeches involve the reader by evoking tension, suspense and surprise. Secondly, when compared to the narrative, they characterise the speaker by illuminating the differences between real and proclaimed motives and attitudes, as well as highlighting a speaker‟s intention and ability to match his words and actions. The internal audiences are also characterised. Thirdly, the speeches provide positive and negative exempla in order to teach the reader that it is not enough simply to persuade others successfully. A leader must also approach persuasion with the right moral attitude and motives, live up to his words, and benefit his audience. To demonstrate this, the speeches are analysed according to three themes: the success or failure of leaders in evoking emotions in their audiences, the narrator‟s presentation of leaders verbally deceiving those on their side, and leaders using the concepts of honour and profit in their persuasion attempts. All the leaders that are scrutinised are lacking in one or more of the areas examined, except Xenophon, who is ultimately the only leader that the reader should emulate in his persuasion attempts. 3 Acknowledgements I would like to dedicate this thesis to the memory of my grandmother. ------------------------- First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor, Prof. Lene Rubinstein, whose enthusiasm for the project was limitless and whose generosity with her time was more than I could have hoped for. Her extensive feedback and her ability to redirect me when I lost my way were invaluable. I would also like to thank the other members of the Classics department at Royal Holloway who gave valuable feedback on my work, chiefly Dr. Chris Kremmydas, Prof. Jonathan Powell and Dr. Nick Lowe. Thanks are also due to those who discussed my papers with me at conferences, and academics who kindly sent me advanced copies of their work or copies of chapters that I was unable to obtain elsewhere. I would also like to thank Royal Holloway for generously awarding me a Crossland Scholarship, and those in the Centre for Oratory and Rhetoric for their support. I owe a tremendous amount of thanks to my mother, father and grandfather for their unending love and for their belief in me. Although this thesis has kept me further away from them than I would have wanted, they have always understood. I hope I have made you proud. Special thanks go to my mother for her proofreading and my father for his IT support. None of this would have been possible without the constant love and support of my fiancé, Jason. Only he has seen the full extent of the highs and lows of the past four years. He has remained a constant source of strength and reassurance. No one has understood this journey as well as my PhD. partner in crime, Emma. I would like to thank her for sharing my tears, tantrums and self-doubt, and for knowing what to say to make me laugh. Love and thanks also go to my other best friends, Donna, Helen, Aless, Gemma, Nel, and Jen, who have always supported me and understood when deadlines and commitments have meant that I haven‟t spent enough time with them. Finally, thanks go to those other friends and acquaintances who have reassured me that I could complete this thesis. Whether this was said casually, or whether it was truly meant, such reassurance has sustained me to this point. 4 Table of Contents Introduction…………………………………………………………………………11 1) Method for the Analysis of Xenophon‟s Speeches…………………………...….29 Method……………………………………………………………………….......29 Previous Approaches to the Hellenica…………………………………………...34 Examples…………………………………………………………………………37 Polydamas’ Speech to the Spartans (6.1.4-16)…………………………….....37 Interpretation………………………………………………………………43 Procles’ speech to the Athenian Assembly (6.5.38-48)……………………….49 Interpretation………………………………………………………………55 Procles to the Council of Athenians, Spartans and Spartan Allies (7.1.2- 11)…………………………………………………………………………...58 Interpretation………………………………………………………………62 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….65 2) Emotional Appeals in the Anabasis……………………………………………...66 Xenophon’s Narratorial and Authorial Interest in Emotions and Leadership……………………………………………………………………….66 Emotional Appeals in the Anabasis.......................................................................69 Approach to the Anabasis and Method……………………………………….....70 Examples…………………………………………………………………….......72 5 Emotional Appeals Responding to Leaders Fearing the Situation…………...72 Clearchus’ Appeal to Fear and Confidence (2.2.3-4)……………………..72 Xenophon’s Appeal to Fear, Confidence, Shame, Pride, Emulation and Desire (3.1.15-25)…………………………………………………….76 Cleanor’s Appeal to Fear (4.6.9) and Xenophon’s Appeal to Fear, Hope and Confidence (4.6.10-15)…………………………………..82 Emotional Appeals Responding to Soldiers Feeling Disheartened about their Situation………………………………………………………………………………..87 Clearchus’ Appeal to Fear and Hope (2.4.5-7)...………………………....87 Cheirisophus’ Appeal to Fear and Pride (3.2.2-3)………………………..90 Emotional Appeals Responding to the Audience Causing Danger…………..93 Proxenus’ Appeal to Calmness (1.5.14) and Cyrus’ Appeal to Fear (1.5.16)…………………………………………………………………….93 Emotional Appeals Responding to Mixed Feelings about Leaders…………..97 Cyrus’ Appeal to Anger, Fear, Confidence and Goodwill/Friendly Feelings (1.4.8)…………………………………………………………....97 Cheirisophus’ Appeal to Goodwill/Friendly Feelings and Confidence (6.1.32-3)…………………………………………………………………100 Cheirisophus’ Appeal to Hope (5.1.4)……………………………………103 Emotional Appeals Responding to Speeches by Outsiders………………….106 Cleanor’s Appeal to Shame and Fear (2.5.39)…………………………..106 Xenophon’s Appeal to Shame and Fear (5.5.13-23)……………………..108 Function of Emotional Appeals………………………………………………...114 6 3) Deceitful Speeches in the Anabasis.……………………………………………124 Xenophon’s Narratorial Opinion on Deceit……………………………………125 How does the Narrator Present Deceptive Speeches and How is the Reader Made to Detect Deception?..............................................................127 Methodological Approach……………………………………………………..128 Examples……………………………………………………………………….129 Cyrus’ Deception of Friends and Subordinates (1.1.6 and 1.1.11)………...129 Cyrus’ Deception of the Greek Soldiers (1.3.20)…………………………...131 Clearchus’ Deception of the Greek Troops (1.3.5-6, 1.3.9-13 and 1.3.15)...132 Clearchus’ Deception of Cyrus (1.8.13)…………………………………....137 Timasion’s Deception of Heracleot & Sinopean Merchants (5.6.19-20)…..138 Xenophon’s Deception of the Army (3.2.18-19, 3.4.46 and 4.8.14)………..139 Xenophon’s Deception of the Army (6.1.25-9)……………………………..142 Xenophon’s Deception of the Army (7.1.22)……………………………….144 Xenophon’s Deception of the Army, Charminus, Polynicus, Heracleides and Seuthes (7.6.41)…………………………………………...146 Similarities between the Deceptions of Friends………………………………..147 Function of the Deceitful Speeches…………………………………………….148 Reader Involvement…………………………………………………………148 Characterisation…………………………………………………………….150 Cyrus……………………………………………………………………..151 Clearchus…………………………………………………………………154 Timasion………………………………………………………………….159 7 Xenophon…………………………………………………………………160 Audiences………………………………………………………………...162 Didactic Function…………………………………………………………...163 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...175 4) Κέξδνο and Τηκή as Persuasive Concepts in the Anabasis…………………….176 The Anabasis Circumstances and Xenophon’s Narratorial Opinion………….179 Methodological Approach……………………………………………………..180 Examples……………………………………………………………………….181 Paymasters Offering Κέρδος and Τιμή to Greek Leaders…………………..181 Commanders Gaining Κέρδος and Τιμή from Paymasters and the Army…..185 Leaders Discussing Κέρδος and Τιμή with Outsiders....................................189 Commanders & Paymasters Providing Τιμή & Κέρδος for the Greek Army………………………………………………………………….195 Xenophon’s Appeal to Κέρδος (3.2.39)…………………………………..196 Timasion’s Appeal to Κέρδος (5.6.22-4)…………………………………196 Lycon and Callimachus’ Appeal to Κέρδος (6.2.10-11)…………………197 Reader Involvement…………………………………………………...199 Characterisation………………………………………………………199 Didactic Purpose……………………………………………………...200 Xenophon’s Appeal to Κέρδος (and Τιμή) (5.1.8)………………………..201 Xenophon’s Appeal to Κέρδος (5.2.18)…………………………………..202 Lycon’s Appeal to Κέρδος (6.2.4-5)……………………………………...203 8 Reader Involvement…………………………………………………...204 Characterisation………………………………………………………204 Didactic Function……………………………………………………..205