The impact of language policy and practice on children’s learning: Evidence from Eastern and Southern Africa Evidence from Eastern and Southern Africa a Barbara Trudell 2016 Commissioned by UNICEF Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Office (ESARO), Basic Education and Gender Equality (BEGE) Section. ©2016 United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Cover photo: Riccardo Gangale ©UNICEF Kenya/2012/Gangale Permission is required to reproduce any part of this publication. Permission will be freely granted to educational or non-profit organizations. Others may be requested to pay a small fee. Requests should be addressed to: Basic Education and Gender Equality Section, Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Office, UNICEF; tel: +254 207-622-307 email: <[email protected]> Contents List of Acronyms iii Glossary iv Acknowledgements v Foreword from the Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Director vi Executive Summary vii Introduction 1 Chapter 1. What research tells us about the links between language policy and education quality 3 1.1. What we already know about language and learning 3 1.2. What we are learning about language, reading and learning. 4 1.3. The promise and realities of current reading interventions. 6 1.4. The realities of the policy environment 7 1.5. Financial resourcing 8 1.6. Conclusion 9 Chapter 2. Language and education policy and practice: a country-level review 11 2.1. Angola 14 2.2. Botswana 18 2.3. Burundi 22 2.4. Comoros 26 2.5. Eritrea 28 2.6. Ethiopia 32 2.7. Kenya 36 2.8. Lesotho 40 2.9. Madagascar 42 2.10. Malawi 44 2.11. Mozambique 48 2.12. Namibia 52 2.13. Rwanda 56 2.14. Somalia 60 2.15. South Africa 64 2.16. South Sudan 70 2.17. Swaziland 74 2.18. Tanzania, United Republic of 76 2.19. Uganda 80 2.20. Zambia 84 2.21. Zimbabwe 90 Chapter 3. Language policy and its impact on student learning outcomes: The evidence in Eastern and Southern Africa 95 3.1. Language policy environments 96 3.2. The Human Development Index: Dropout rates 97 3.3. SACMEQ data: Learning achievement of Grade 6 pupils 98 3.4. EGRA data: Testing reading ability 99 3.5. Country-specific studies 101 3.6. Conclusions 102 Evidence from Eastern and Southern Africa i Chapter 4. Case studies of Ethiopia, South Africa and South Sudan 105 4.1. Ethiopia 107 4.2. South Africa 111 4.3. South Sudan 115 Chapter 5. Conclusion and Recommendations 119 5.1. Conclusions 119 5.2. Recommendations 120 References 121 ii The impact of language policy and practice on children’s learning List of Acronyms BTL Bible Translation and Literacy DfID UK Department for International Development EDC Education and Development Center (US-based education organisation) EGRA Early grade reading assessment ESAR Eastern and Southern Africa Region GPE Global Partnership for Education INGO International Non-Governmental Organisation L1 First or home language L2 Second language MLE Multilingual education MLEN Multilingual Education Network MoE Ministry of Education MoI Medium of Instruction MTE Mother tongue-medium education NGO Non-governmental organization RTI Research Triangle Institute SACMEQ Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality SIL SIL International, formerly the Summer Institute of Linguistics USAID United States Agency for International Development WPM Words per minute Evidence from Eastern and Southern Africa iii Glossary Terms related to languages • International language: a language spoken in multiple countries; in Eastern and Southern Africa, this is typically a European language. The distribution of these languages across the region is related to their introduction by a colonial power. In the Eastern and Southern Africa region the international languages are primarily English, French and Portuguese. • Local language: a language spoken in one or more ethnolinguistic communities in a country. • Mother tongue: the language learned by a child in the home. May also be called first language or home language. • National language: may refer to a language that has been recognized by law as a language of the nation; or alternatively, to a language that is spoken by one or more ethnolinguistic communities in the nation. • Official language: a language which has been designated by law as a language of the nation, to be used in governance and education systems. • Orthography: the alphabet and spelling system of a given language. • Bilingualism: the ability to speak two languages. • Biliteracy: the ability to read and write in two languages. • Code-switching: alternating between two or more languages in a conversation. Terms related to the education context • Language of instruction / medium of instruction: the language in which curriculum content is taught. • Language as subject: the presence of a language in the curriculum as a taught subject. • Pedagogy: the method and practice of teaching. • Additive multilingualism / additive multilingual education / additive bilingual education: the use of two languages of instruction concurrently. • Transitional bilingual or multilingual education: the use of one language as medium of instruction in the early grades, transitioning to the use of a second (or third) language in the later grades. • Subtractive bilingual education: the replacement of the first language of instruction with a second language of instruction, so that the first language no longer features in the curriculum at all. • Language immersion education: the intentional and exclusive use of a second language as medium of instruction. Where the home language is not well supported in the print environment or education system, this type of education is called submersion. iv The impact of language policy and practice on children’s learning Acknowledgements This review of the impact of language policy and practices on children’s learning in the 21 countries of Eastern and Southern Africa results from the vision of UNICEF education officers in the region. Commissioned by UNICEF, this review aims to provide a basis for informed decision- making by UNICEF programme officers regarding language and education. The review draws on a wide array of reports, analyses, research studies and policy documents. In assembling this information I have benefited from generous information-sharing by academic and NGO colleagues in the education world, too many to enumerate here. My own experience in many of these countries over the past 21 years has also provided perspective on the data gathered. I would like to give special acknowledgment to Camille Baudot, Mitsue Uemura and Shiraz Chakera of UNICEF’s Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Office for their support, direction and thoughtful input. Their vision and passion for quality education in the region has been the driving force behind this study. I would further like to acknowledge contributions from SIL Africa staff members Gary Cowman, Carol Ngugi, Carl Grove and Leila Schroeder. Final reviews of Chapter 2 by UNICEF Country Education Officers in several of the countries were also extremely valuable. One important feature of this review is its currency. In assembling the information, a great deal of effort was given to finding out the most recent policies, practices, studies and initiatives related to language and education. The language policy arena is highly political and can be very dynamic; radical changes in language of instruction policy can occur almost overnight. Hence, a caveat: what is current as of this writing may be superseded at any time, so staying up to date is important. Nevertheless, the information presented for each country can provide a solid basis for understanding the country’s language and education dynamics and planning within those dynamics. While every effort has been made to provide as complete a review as possible, inevitably some studies and language-education initiatives will have been missed. I take responsibility for any such omissions. Barbara Trudell, PhD Director of Research and Advocacy, SIL Africa Nairobi, Kenya March 2016 Evidence from Eastern and Southern Africa v Foreword from the Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Director This report – on the impact of language policy and practices on learning – is an important and timely addition to the debate on quality education. Global evidence has been in support of mother tongue-based education as a critical part of high quality education, and the report adds to this body of knowledge. While the education arguments for the use of mother tongue are robust, decisions on language of instruction in schools are often rooted in a nation’s history, culture and environment. In the Eastern and Southern Africa region (ESAR), many parents and policy makers have veered towards early adoption of international languages. In addition, many countries in the region have multiple languages spoken within their borders, which presents logistical and linguistic challenges in using the language the child is best able to speak and understand. It is against this background and context that UNICEF commissioned this report. The impact of language policy and practice on children’s learning: Evidence from Eastern and Southern Africa. The report seeks to gain a deeper understanding on the role language plays in improving the quality of education, and to understand the situation across Eastern and Southern Africa. The report finds positive links between using the child’s home language and learning outcomes. The report highlights that many countries are promoting mother-tongue language policies, though practices in schools frequently diverge from the national language policy and instead use international languages (such as English). This is due to parents’ and educators’ perceptions on the value of English in terms of accessing jobs and participating in a globalised economy. However, the report notes that while multilingualism is an important goal, it is not achieved by relegating the mother-tongue language to the home. Instead, the report calls for nurturing the mother tongue through the primary school years. The report suggests advocacy and mobilisation as means to encourage parents to value their home language in the school environment.