Notes 1 China’s Foreign Aid and Investment Diplomacy to African Nations—I 1 . See Stuart Schram, The Political Thought of Mao Tse-tung (New York: Praeger, 1966), p. 256. 2 . Philip Snow, “China and Africa: Consensus and Challenge,” in Thomas W. Robinson and David Shambaugh (eds.), Chinese Foreign Policy: Theory and Practice (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), p. 284. 3 . There has also been speculation that China and the Soviet Union divided Africa into spheres of influence at this time, with China taking East Africa and the Soviet Union West Africa, or at least some of the countries in each region. See John K. Cooley, East Wind over Africa (New York: Walker, 1955), p. 25. 4 . S e e World Knowledge Handbook (Peking: World Knowledge Publishing Co., 1961), p. 408, and Peter Hann, “Africa: New Target for Peking,” China Factbook (Hong Kong: 1962), cited in John F. Copper, China’s Foreign Aid: An Instrument of Peking’s Foreign Policy (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath, 1976), p. 88. 5 . In fact, the Chinese Foreign Ministry was reorganized at this time in recogni- tion of its new and broader interest in Africa. The West Asian and African Affairs Department was created to shift the responsibilities for Africa from the West European and African Department. See Joseph Camilleri, Chinese Foreign Policy: The Maoist Era and Its Aftermath (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1980), p. 97. 6 . S e e S i d n e y K l e i n , Politics versus Economics: The Foreign Trade and Aid Policies of China (Hong Kong: International Studies Group, 1968), p. 166, and David H. Shinn and Joshua Eisenman, China and Africa: A Century of Engagement (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), p. 265. 7 . J a n o s H o r v a t h , Chinese Technical Transfer to the Third World: A Grants Economy Analysis (New York: Praeger, 1976), pp. 40–41. 8 . S e e People’s Daily , September 14, 1960, cited in Copper, China’s Foreign Aid , p. 89. 208 ● Notes 9. For an account of this, see Philip Snow, The Star Raft: China’s Encounter with Africa (New York: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988), p. 145, and Wei Liang- Tsai, Peking versus Taipei in Africa, 1960–1978 (Taipei: Asia and the World Institute, 1982), pp. 110–11. 1 0 . S n o w , The Star Raft: China’s Encounter with Africa , p. 145. The author notes, that China was suffering from food deficiencies and that peasants in some areas were eating leaves of tree to ward off hunger. 1 1 . The Communist Economic Offensive through 1964, U.S. Department of State, p. 18, cited in Klein, Politics versus Economics , p. 167. 1 2 . C o p p e r , China’s Foreign Aid , pp. 89–90. 13 . See Jan S. Prybyla, “Communist China’s Economic Relations with Africa 1960–1964,” Asian Survey , April 1964, pp. 1136. 14 . In 1962, the United States started giving aid to Guinea, amounting to between $45 and 60 million by 1966. See Copper, China’s Foreign Aid , p. 90. 15 . Daniel Wolfstone, “Sino-African Economics,” Far Eastern Economic Review , February 14, 1964, and Marshall Goldman, Soviet Foreign Aid (New York: Praeger, 1967), p. 173, both cited in Copper, China’s Foreign Aid , p. 90. 1 6 . Le Monde , December 21, 1966, cited in Snow, The Star Raft , p. 297. 17. Zhou, accompanied by Foreign Minister Chen Yi, visited the United Arab Republic, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Ghana, Mali, Guinea, Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia. China sought support for the upcoming second Afro-Asian Conference, China’s nuclear test and its view on the test ban treaty, and its principles of foreign aid giving. See Alan Lawrance, China’s Foreign Relations since 1949 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975), p. 171. 1 8 . “ C h i n a ’ s A i d F a i l u r e s , ” Asian Analyst, March 1966, cited in Copper, China’s Foreign Aid , p. 90. 19 . John F. Copper, “China’s Military Assistance,” in John F. Copper and Daniel S. Papp (eds.), Communist Nations Military Assistance (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1983), p. 120. 2 0 . W o l f g a n g B a r t k e , China’s Economic Aid (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1975), p. 116. 2 1 . I b i d . , p . 1 2 0 . 2 2 . African Report , February 1967, cited in Copper, China’s Foreign Aid , p. 90. 2 3 . People’s Daily , March 13, 1970 cited in Copper , China’s Foreign Aid , p. 90. Also see Bartke, China’s Economic Aid , p. 120. 24 . “Chronicle and Documentation,” China Quarterly , January-March 1970, cited in Copper, China’s Foreign Aid, p. 91. 2 5 . B a r t k e , China’s Economic Aid, p. 116. The author believes the aid was given in the form of a loan first negotiated in 1969. 2 6 . H o r v a t h , China’s Technology Transfer to the Third World, p. 6. The author says the loan was for $41 million. 27 . Agreements of this kind, but more important a treaty of friendship—which China also signed with the government of Guinea—indicated that Chinese Notes ● 209 leaders viewed Guinea as a friendly, anti-imperialist state. See Harold C. Hinton, China’s Turbulent Quest (New York: Macmillan, 1970), p. 193. 2 8 . China Topics , March 1973, cited in Copper, China’s Foreign Aid , p. 91. Also see Horvath, Chinese Technology Transfer to the Third World, p. 8. The author puts the aid at $10 million saying it was “budgetary aid.” 29 . Xinhua, December 13, 1972, cited in Bartke, China’s Economic Aid, p. 116. 3 0 . The Military Balance (London: IISS, 1974), p. 66. 31 . New China News Agency, June 25, 1973, cited in Copper, China’s Foreign Aid , p. 91. 3 2 . H o r v a t h , Chinese Technology Transfer to the Third World , p. 8. 3 3 . C o p p e r , China’s Foreign Aid in 1979–80 (Baltimore: University of Maryland School of Law, 1981), p. 52. In 1980, a Chinese medical facility was completed. 34 . Kwame Nkrumah had led Ghana to independence from Britain in 1957 and established a centralized government designed to transform Ghana into a socialist state. See Camilleri, Chinese Foreign Policy, p. 97. 3 5 . H i n t o n , China’s Turbulent Quest , p. 260. 3 6 . People’s Daily , August 22, 1961, cited in Copper, China’s Foreign Aid , p. 92. 3 7 . B a r t k e , China’s Economic Aid , pp. 114–15. 3 8 . L a w r a n c e , China’s Foreign Relations since 1949, pp. 109–10. 39. China had signed a trade agreement as well as a treaty of friendship and non- aggression with the government of Ghana. See Hinton, China’s Turbulent Quest , p. 193. 4 0 . A l e x a n d e r E c k s t e i n , Communist China’s Economic Growth and Foreign Trade (New York: McGraw Hill, 1965), p. 232. 41 . The principles were contained in a speech Zhou gave on January 15, 1964, in Accra, Ghana. 4 2 . People’s Daily , July 15, 1964, cited in Copper, China’s Foreign Aid, p. 92. Horvath notes the aid was for technical assistance, which could have included budgetary support. See Horvath, Chinese Technology Transfer to the Third World , p. 9. 4 3 . Nkrumah’s Subversion in Ghana (Accra: State Publishing Corporation, 1966), p. 56. 44 . Ian Taylor, China in Africa: Engagement and Compromise (London: Routledge, 2006), p. 32. 4 5 . K l e i n , Politics versus Economics , p. 168. 4 6 . C o p p e r , China’s Foreign Aid , p. 93. China’s premier Zhou Enlai visited several African countries, including Ghana, in December 1963 and January 1964 to drum up support for China’s stance on the conference. See John W. Garver, Foreign Relations of the People’s Republic of China (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1993), p. 143 for details. It is uncertain whether Ghana was going to take China’s side on the conference in view of the fact that by the end of 1964 China had provided Ghana with about $40 million in aid compared to $89 million that the Soviet Union had extended and $82 million given by Eastern European nations. See Klein, Politics versus Economics , p. 168. 210 ● Notes 4 7 . K l e i n , Politics versus Economics , p. 168. 4 8 . New York Times , October 26, 1966, cited in Copper , China’s Foreign Aid , p. 93. 49 . Probably a number of small aid projects funded by China were cancelled or not finished. See Bartke, China’s Economic Aid pp. 206, 209, and 214 for men- tion of several. 5 0 . T a y l o r , China in Africa , p. 32. 5 1 . C o p p e r , China’s Foreign Aid , p. 93. 52 . Chinese aid efforts were seen in the form of a spinning mill and irrigation and rice cultivation among other projects. See Copper, China’s Foreign Aid in 1978 , p. 35 and Copper, China’s Foreign Aid in 1979–80 , p. 51. 53 . See Hinton, China’s Turbulent Quest , p. 100; Camilleri, Chinese Foreign Policy , pp. 99–100. 5 4 . People’s Daily , September 23, 1961, cited in Copper, China’s Foreign Aid , p. 93. 55 . It was later reported that China had sent military experts to Mali and provided training to Mali military personnel in China, though neither were very large.