© Copyright 2018 Natascha A. Karlova i Misinformation and Disinformation in Online Games: An Exploratory Investigation of Possible Cues Natascha A. Karlova A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Washington 2018 Reading Committee: Karen Fisher, Chair Michael Eisenberg Jin Ha Lee Program Authorized to Offer Degree: Information Science ii University of Washington Abstract Misinformation and Disinformation in Online Games: An Exploratory Investigation of Possible Cues Natascha A. Karlova Chair of the Supervisory Committee: Professor Karen Fisher The Information School From election meddling to #fakenews to that “truther” meme shared by your Uncle Vernon on Facebook, we’re inundated with misinformation and disinformation daily, but may struggle to perceive cues to misinformation and disinformation, especially in online environments. Online games, like other online environments, are rife with rumors and speculation. Online games, however, provide a bounded space, separate from the noise of reality, within which places, tools, and individuals’ constructions of meanings may influence the perception of possible cues to misinformation (mistaken information) and to disinformation (deceptive information) with limited risk in the event of failure to perceive iii such cues. Unique relative to other online environments, online gamers rely upon their teammates to aid in the perception and judgement of possible cues. This dissertation work leveraged Interpersonal Deception Theory, Information Grounds, Activity Theory, and Symbolic Interactionism to investigate how places, tools, and individuals’ constructions of meanings might influence their perceptions of possible cues to misinformation and disinformation in an online game, Star Wars: The Old Republic (SWTOR). Methods included 40 weeks of exploratory fieldwork, 70 weeks of participant observation, 180 minutes of naturalistic observation, collection of 72 online artifacts, and 30-90 minute semi-structured interviews with seven players. Possible cues to misinformation included other players’ lack of knowledge, timing, technological artifacts – a novel cue, and personal disagreement. Possible cues to disinformation included other players’ lack of evidence, participants’ negative experiences – a novel cue, other players’ success, avatar metadata – a novel cue, information omission, vagueness, improbability, and indirect information. Places influenced perceptions of possible cues when places insufficiently met participants’ needs for sociality and information. Participants’ game information management tools influenced cue perception through their affordances and limitations. Individuals’ constructions of meanings influenced cue perception through participants’ social and information curation actions. Implications illuminate possibilities for game design, misinformation as user engagement tool, and disinformation as information management tool. Future work discusses cue investigation, the role of teams in cue perception, the role of deception within Information Grounds and Activity Theory, iv the potential for Symbolic Interactionism in information behavior and information literacy, and the cultural and social impact of misinformation and disinformation research. v Table of Contents Table of Contents ..................................................................................................vi List of Figures ..................................................................................................... xiii List of Tables ........................................................................................................xv Chapter 1. Introduction ....................................................................................... 18 1.1 Background: Misinformation and Disinformation as Terms ................... 19 1.2 Need for This Study .............................................................................. 19 1.3 Purpose of This Study .......................................................................... 20 1.3.1 Research Questions ......................................................................... 21 1.4 Motivation of Work ................................................................................ 22 1.4.1 Misinformation .................................................................................. 22 1.4.2 Disinformation .................................................................................. 23 1.4.3 Cues to Misinformation and Disinformation ...................................... 24 1.4.4 Teams ............................................................................................... 27 1.4.5 Games .............................................................................................. 28 1.4.6 Massively Multiplayer Online Games (MMOs) ................................. 30 1.5 Theoretical Frameworks ....................................................................... 31 1.5.1 Interpersonal Deception Theory (IDT) .............................................. 32 1.5.2 Information Grounds ......................................................................... 33 1.5.3 Activity Theory .................................................................................. 34 vi 1.5.4 Symbolic Interactionism ................................................................... 36 1.5.5 Summary of Theoretical Frameworks ............................................... 37 1.6 Summary of Introduction ...................................................................... 38 Chapter 2. Literature Review .............................................................................. 41 2.1 Review of Research Questions ............................................................ 42 2.2 Review of Theoretical Frameworks ...................................................... 43 2.3 Information ........................................................................................... 43 2.3.1 Meaningfulness ................................................................................ 46 2.3.2 Informativeness ................................................................................ 47 2.3.3 Subjectivity ....................................................................................... 49 2.4 Misinformation ...................................................................................... 51 2.5 Disinformation ...................................................................................... 53 2.5.1 The Problem of Truth ........................................................................ 54 2.5.2 The Problem of Intent ....................................................................... 55 2.5.3 Other Theories of Deception (Disinformation) .................................. 56 2.6 Information, Misinformation, and Disinformation .................................. 60 2.7 Cues to Disinformation ......................................................................... 61 2.7.1 Cues ................................................................................................. 62 2.7.2 Physical Cues .................................................................................. 63 2.7.3 Verbal Cues ...................................................................................... 64 2.7.4 Textual Cues .................................................................................... 65 vii 2.7.5 Discussion of Cues to Deception ..................................................... 66 2.7.6 Limitations of Prior Studies ............................................................... 68 2.8 Misinformation, Disinformation, and Cues in MMOs ............................ 69 2.9 Other Game Genres ............................................................................. 70 2.10 Management and Teamwork in MMOs ................................................. 75 2.11 Communication in MMOs ..................................................................... 80 2.11.1 Technological Aspects: Text Chat ................................................... 80 2.11.2 Technological Aspects: Voice Chat ................................................. 83 2.11.3 Social Aspects ................................................................................ 84 2.12 Information in MMOs ............................................................................ 86 2.13 Summary of Literature Review ............................................................. 89 Chapter 3. Methods ............................................................................................ 91 3.1 Review of Research Questions ............................................................ 93 3.2 Review of Theoretical Frameworks ...................................................... 94 3.3 Review of Cues .................................................................................... 95 3.4 Research Setting .................................................................................. 96 3.4.1 Description of Setting ....................................................................... 96 3.4.2 Justification of Setting ...................................................................... 97 3.5 Scope of Analysis ................................................................................. 99 3.5.1 Scale of Analysis: Individuals ........................................................... 99 3.5.2 Level of Analysis: Critical Incidents ...............................................