The Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Noragric, is the international gateway for the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU). Eight departments, associated research institutions and the Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine in Oslo. Established in 1986, Noragric’s contribution to international development lies in the interface between research, education (Bachelor, Master and PhD programmes) and assignments. The Noragric Master thesis are the final theses submitted by students in order to fulfil the requirements under the Noragric Master programme “International Environmental Studies”, “International Development Studies” and “International Relations”. The findings in this thesis do not necessarily reflect the views of Noragric. Extracts from this publication may only be reproduced after prior consultation with the author and on condition that the source is indicated. For rights of reproduction or translation contact Noragric © Jiunmin, Lim, Dec 2015 [email protected] Noragric Department of International Environment and Development Studies P.O. Box 5003 N-1432 Ås Norway Tel.: +47 64 96 52 00 Fax: +47 64 96 52 01 Internet: http://www.nmbu.no/norag Declaration I, Jiunmin Lim declare that this thesis is a result of my research investigations and findings. Sources of information other than my own have been acknowledged and a reference list has been appended. This work has not been previously submitted to any other university for award of any type of academic degree. Signature……………………………….. Date……………………………… ! III!! ! ! ! ! ! Acknowledgments Firstly, I would like to thank God for His provision, guidance and blessings for completing my Master studies. Thank you God for making me realize that whenever things fall apart You bring the good out of bad. Secondly, I want to thank my husband WL for all his support. Thank you for being there for me and encouraging me to do my best. I want to thank my son , Lil M for being obedient and understanding when I was busy with my thesis. I want to thank my parents for all their help to link me to the interviewees. Pa and Ma, thank you for travelling along with me during my fieldwork in Penang. I want to my sister for her prayers for me and lending an ear to me. Also, my late grandmother who passed away when I was writing this thesis, memories of you had motivated me to go an extra mile. My heartfelt thanks to my supervisor Ian Bryceson, thanks for all his support and guidance for this thesis. I have learnt a lot from him not only from the academic but also every day life that had inspired me not to give up. Thanks again my bestest supervisor. I am glad we made it! Special thanks to my friends who helped me in this thesis, Anette, Alvin and Afshan. I appreciate all your efforts for reading and commenting my paper. I also want to thank my study coordinator Ingunn Bohman. Thanks for all your care, help and kindness. I will cherish these wonderful memories with me whenever I go. ! V! ! ! ! ! ! ! ABSTRACT The marine and coastal ecosystem of Penang experiences problems with water pollution and overexploitation of fish stock is not a new phenomenon. The degradation of the marine and coastal ecosystem, coupled with natural hazards such as the 2004 tsunami, have affected the livelihoods of the inshore fishers and aquaculturists who depend on marine and coastal resources for a living. This study addresses the vulnerability and the coping strategies of the inshore fishers and aquaculturists (shrimp, fish and cockle aquaculturists) in Penang by applying the sustainable livelihood framework and resilience theory. In order to gain an in-depth understanding their livelihoods, a qualitative research method was applied. Interviews with the inshore fishers and aquaculturists were conducted to explore their perceptions of their access to various capitals, distribution of assets, and challenges in fisheries. It was found that both fishers and cockle aquaculturists are more vulnerable than shrimp and fish aquaculturists, who have higher levels of livelihood capitals, which made them more resilient in recovery from shortfalls. This study also reveals the political and economic factors that have worsened the livelihoods of the inshore fishers and aquaculturists in Penang, while weakening their chances of coping with various stressors. Stressors from anthropogenic impacts coupled with corruption and policies that favor economic development over the marine and coastal environment have increased vulnerability amongst the inshore fishers and aquaculturists in Penang. Keywords: marine and coastal pollution, overfishing, livelihood, resilience, coping strategies ! VII!! ! ! ! ! ! Table of Contents LIST%OF%FIGURES%............................................................................................................................%XI! LIST%OF%TABLES%..........................................................................................................................%XIII! LIST%OF%ACRONYMS%.....................................................................................................................%XV! 1.0%INTRODUCTION%........................................................................................................................%1! 1.1!STATEMENT!OF!PROBLEM!........................................................................................................................!4! 1.2!SIGNIFICANCE!OF!STUDY!...........................................................................................................................!4! 1.3!RESEARCH!OBJECTIVES!.............................................................................................................................!5! 1.4!RESEARCH!QUESTIONS!..............................................................................................................................!5! 1.5!THESIS!STRUCTURE!....................................................................................................................................!5! 2.0%BACKGROUND%...........................................................................................................................%7! 2.1!COUNTRY!DESCRIPTION!............................................................................................................................!7! 2.2!POLITICAL!AND!LEGAL!STRUCTURE!IN!MALAYSIA!...............................................................................!9! 2.3!INSTITUTIONS!IN!RELATION!TO!FISHERIES!IN!MALAYSIA!.................................................................!12! 2.4!HISTORICAL!BACKGROUND!OF!FISHERIES!IN!MALAYSIA!..................................................................!19! 2.4.1%Marine%Capture%Fisheries%in%Malaysia%...................................................................................%19! 2.4.2%Aquaculture%in%Malaysia%..............................................................................................................%23! 3.0%LITERATURE%REVIEW%...........................................................................................................%27! 3.1!SUSTAINABLE!LIVELIHOOD!FRAMEWORK!IN!FISHERIES!..................................................................!27! 3.2!ISSUES!IN!MALAYSIA!FISHERIES!............................................................................................................!29! 3.2.1%Overfishing%.........................................................................................................................................%29! 3.2.2%Natural%Hazard%...............................................................................................................................%30! 3.2.3%Coastal%Pollution%.............................................................................................................................%30! 3.2.4%Land%reclamation%...........................................................................................................................%33! 4.0%METHODS%.................................................................................................................................%35! 4.1!THE!STUDY!AREA!.....................................................................................................................................!35! 4.2!DATA!COLLECTION!METHODS!................................................................................................................!36! 4.2.1%Semi–structured%interviews%.......................................................................................................%36! 4.2.2%Focus%group%interview%..................................................................................................................%37! 4.3!SAMPLING!..................................................................................................................................................!38! 4.4!SECONDARY!DATA!....................................................................................................................................!38! 4.5!LIMITATIONS!.............................................................................................................................................!38! 4.6!TRUSTWORTHINESS!&!ETHICAL!CONSIDERATION!IN!STUDIES!........................................................!39! 5.0%THEORETICAL%FRAMEWORK%.............................................................................................%41! 5.1!SUSTAINABLE!LIVELIHOOD!FRAMEWORK!(SLF)!...............................................................................!41!