RANI-HENRIK ANDERSSON The Ghost Dance Among the Lakota Indians in 1890 A Multidimensional Interpretation ACADEMIC DISSERTATION To be presented, with the permission of the Faculty of Humanities of the University of Tampere, for public discussion in the Paavo Koli Auditorium of the University, Kanslerinrinne 1, Tampere, on June 7th, 2003, at 12 oclock Acta Universitatis Tamperensis 939 University of Tampere Tampere 2003 ACADEMIC DISSERTATION University of Tampere, Department of History Finland Distribution University of Tampere Bookshop TAJU Tel +358 3 215 6055 PO Box 617 Fax +358 3 215 7685 33014 University of Tampere taju@utafi Finland http://granumutafi Cover design by Juha Siro Printed dissertation Electronic dissertation Acta Universitatis Tamperensis 939 Acta Electronica Universitatis Tamperensis 262 ISBN 951-44-5689-0 ISBN 951-44-5690-4 ISSN 1455-1616 ISSN 1456-954X http://actautafi Tampereen yliopistopaino Oy Juvenes Print Tampere 2003 The man had died and yet he had not died, And he had talked with God, and all the dead Were coming with the whirlwind at their head, And there would be new earth and heaven! John G. Neihardt: The Song of the Messiah CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 1. INTRODUCTION 9 1.1. Research Topic and Method 9 1.2. Source Material 16 1.2.1. Previous Studies 16 1.2.2. Primary Sources 18 2. FROM EARLY CONTACTS TO GHOST DANCE 22 2.1. Isolation and Assimilation 22 2.2. The Lakota – A Look at the People 30 2.2.1. Thíthøwä – Dwellers on the Plains 30 2.2.2. Defending the Lakota Homeland 1860- 1881 38 2.2.3. The Lakotas and U.S. Indian Policy in the 1880s 47 2.3. Revitalization Movements – Hope for Suppressed People 55 2.3.1. Revitalization Movements and the Cultural Conflict 55 2.3.2. Wovoka and the Ghost Dance of 1890 58 2.3.3. The Doctrine and the Spread of the Ghost Dance 62 3. WANÁåI WACHÍPI KË – THE SPIRIT DANCE 65 3.1. The Journey of the Delegates – the First Changes 65 3.2. The Initial Ent husiasm and the Catastrophes of Summer 1890 71 3.3. The New Winds of the Lakota Ghost Dance 76 3.4. The Forbidden Lakota Traditions and the Ghost Dance 82 3.4.1. The Traditional Belief System 82 3.4.2. The Ceremony of the Lakota Ghost Dance 90 3.4.3. The Message of the Songs and Visions 95 3.5. The Height and Decline of the Lakota Ghost Dance 100 3.5.1. From Pine Ridge to Standing Rock 100 3.5.2. Ógle Wakhä kë – the Sacred Shirt 105 3.5.3. Incidents on Pine Ridge and Rosebud 111 3.5.4. The Flight of the Frightened, the Stronghold and a Battle 115 3.5.5. The Second and Third Flights 131 3.6. A Look at the Lakota Spirit Dance 144 4. THE INDIAN AGENTS AND THE LAKOTA GHOST DANCE 155 4.1. The Problem Arises 155 4.2. The Question of Control 165 4.2.1. The Bewildered New Agents 165 4.2.2 The Old Rivalry Renewed 171 4.3. The Loss of Control 178 4.3.1. Co- operation and Complaints 178 4.3.2. The Army Takes Over 185 2 4.4. The Indian Agents – A Failure in Leadership? 190 5. THE ARMY AND THE LAKOTA GHOST DANCE CAMPAIGN 193 5.1. The Early Rumors 195 5.2. “To Protect and Suppress Trouble” 198 5.3. To Divide and to Conquer 205 5.3.1. The Threatening Uprising 205 5.3.2. Struggling to Avoid a Battle 215 5.3.3. Negotiations by Force 222 5.4. The Military Campaign – A Success or a Disaster? 237 6. “THE GHOST DANCE TROUBLE” IN THE PRESS 243 6.1. “From Our Special Correspondent” 243 6.1.1 Those Dangerous Indian Dances 245 6.2. Careful but Confused Reporting 250 6.2.1. “The Air is Full of Rumors” 250 6.2.2. Sensing a Sensation 256 6.2.3. “In an Atmosphere Pregnant with Mysteries” 269 6.3. From Confusion to Wounded Knee 276 6.3.1. Anticipating a War 276 6.3.2. First Blood and Chaos 287 6.3.3. “The Ghost Dance War” 296 6.4. The Press – Its role in the Ghost Dance Trouble 315 7. THE UN ITED STATES CONGRESS AND THE GHOST DANCE 322 7.1. Weapons for the Settlers or Food for the Lakotas? 322 7.2. Attention Turns toward the Lakotas 325 7.3. Sitting Bull and Red Cloud as Scapegoats 341 7.4. Congressiona l Inaction 345 8. TOWARD A MULTIDIMENSIONAL INTERPRETATION 351 SOURCES 376 CHRONOLOGY 399 APPENDICES 402 FINNISH SUMMARY 420 INDEX 433 3 APPENDICES AND PICTURES Appendix A - Phonetic Key to the Lakota Language Appendix B - List of Abbreviations Appendix 1, Map 1 - The Area Covered by the Ghost Dance Appendix 2, Figure 1 - The Structure of the Indian Office 1873-1892 Appendix 3, Figure 2 - Divisions of the Sioux Appendix 4, Map 2 - The Lakota Country Around 1850 Appendix 5, Figure 3 - Political Leadership Among the Lakotas Appendix 6, Map 3 - Reduction of the Sioux Reservations 1868-1889 Appendix 7, Map 4 - The Lakota Reservations in 1890 Appendix 8, Maps 5-6 - The District Structure on Pine Ridge Reservation - Indian Communities on Pine Ridge Reservation Appendix 9 - The Messiah Letters Appendix 10, Figure 4 - The Lakota Concept of Wakhä Thäka Appendix 11 - Kicking Bear’s Speech, October 9, 1890 Appendix 12 - Short Bull’s Speech, October 31, 1890 Appendix 13, Map 7 - The Stronghold Appendix 14, Map 8 - The Field of Wounded Knee 4 Red Cloud p. 119 Kicking Bear p. 119 Sitting Bull p. 119 Short Bull p. 119 A Sioux Drawing of the Ghost Dance p. 120 A Ghost Dance p. 120 A Lakota Camp p. 120 A Ghost Shirt p. 121 Lakota Wintercount of 1890 p. 121 Senator Henry L. Dawes p. 299 Major General Nelson A. Miles p. 299 Brigadier General John R. Brooke p. 299 An Indian Scout p. 300 Digging the Trenches at Pine Ridge p. 300 “Indian Troubles” p. 300 The Pine Ridge Agency p. 301 Agent Daniel F. Royer p. 301 5 ACKNOWLEGDMENTS This book is a result of years of hard work and dedication, but it is also a result of a lifelong interest toward Native American cultures. The fact that I am a Finn, living far away from the Indians and far away from the primary sources, has made this project challenging. To some people it has even seemed rather strange. Why did I not heed the advice of those who urged me to choose a more familiar and easy topic? Once you are interested in something, however, you have to pursue that ambition; otherwise action might lead to a lifelong questioning of what if? Now I do not have to ask myself that question, I have traveled this journey and the result is this book. Still, there has been great understanding toward my work here in Finland. It would have been impossible to complete this study without this support. Now, when I look back, I can see that I always met exactly the right people at the right moment. Since I am a historian, I feel that it is only natural that these people should be mentioned here in the order in which they appeared in my life. My academic life began at the History Department of the University of Tampere in 1988. During my first years as a student I pushed my interest toward the Native Americans aside; there was simply too much other work to do. When I finally had to decide the topic for my Master’s thesis, I naturally thought about Indians. I was, however, afraid of taking the first step. I knew that there would no longer be a return from that path; it would be a life altering decision. At a critical moment my good friend, Riitta Savola, said: “If you don’t do it, you will regret it all your life.” I would like to thank her for those encouraging words. In 1992, I met my former Middle School teacher Doctor Rainer Smedman, who laughed at me when learning about my interest in Indians. His amusement was not malicious; on the contrary, he was also working with his Ph.D. dissertation focusing on the history of the Lakota people. From that moment he has helped and guided me; he has been a good friend, and he has read and commented on many versions of my dissertation manuscript. His help has been of utmost value, and he deserves my warmest thanks. During the early period Professors Seikko Eskola 6 and Olli Vehviläinen gave me the chance to continue with my project. After their retirement Professor Marjatta Hietala supported my work with equal enthusiasm and helped me to receive funding for several years. When I was starting my dissertation, I met again with Professor Markku Henriksson, who had introduced me to the field of American Studies years earlier. He encouraged me to continue my work and has helped and supported me ever since. In 1998 he grabbed me by the arm and threw me into an office; there I met, for the first time, with Professor Robert E. Bieder. I spent several hours with Professor Bieder talking about my project and listening to him sing Iroquois songs. Afterwards I was convinced that I did not make a good impression because I was thrown there totally unprepared. Now I have to thank Markku Henriksson for his wise action; despite my fears, Professor Bieder took me under his wing, and has been a constant supporter and a friend ever since.