MARXISM TODAY, JULY 1963 215 alliance with the big monopolists who wield the private sector of production, and to abandon enormous economic power and are closely con­ India's policy of non-alignment. Indian monopoly nected with many leaders of the ruling party." circles hope to make bigger profits from the new This influence was revealed in the pressure upon gigantic arms programme. The result is that the Nehru Government to dissolve the Kerala India's poverty-stricken masses are being urged State Government which was led by Communists, to tighten their belts for further sacrifices. in the suppression of trade union struggles for Whatever happens in the efforts to settle India's higher wages, and in the opposition to drastic differences with China depends primarily on the land reform, struggle of its people against foreign domination India's reactionary parties and the right-wing and Indian monopoly capital. Only then will the in leading Congress circles have the backing of real voice of the Indian masses exert itself in the United States and British imperialism in the pres­ cause of world peace and friendly relations with sure for reducing the public sector and increasing all countries. Philosophical Revisionism William Ash N a very interesting little book, The Philo­ Existentialism sophy of Man,^ Adam Schaff, Professor of It is easy enough to understand why Sartre's IPhilosophy at the University of Warsaw and a French version of Existentialism should be the member of the Central Committee of the Polish specific philosophical guise adopted by certain Working People's Party, applies a Marxist revisionists in Poland. In eastern Europe, where analysis to the ideological ferment which has there were no indigenous bourgeois revolutions, characterised the intellectual life of Poland over middle class intellectuals long tended to look to the last few years. This is an important subject France as the original source of liberal ideas. It for consideration since many propagandists in the is only natural that in the changed circumstances so-called "free world" affect to find in Poland the of today those out of sympathy with the effort brightest prospects for "liberalisation" and the to build socialism should once more borrow assertion of "individual freedom". What they their ideological weapons from the same armoury. really mean, of course, is that the hankering after But there is a more particular reason why Sartre's bourgeois forms of art and philosophy by a sec­ philosophy suits their purpose. Since he has at­ tion of the Polish intelhgentsia encourages the tempted to combine an existentialist account of hope that the advance of socialism itself might be the plight of the individual with a Marxist retarded there or even reversed. account of society and its dynamics, the latter Professor Schaff believes that a failure to pro­ aspect of his thought provides a convenient cover vide an adequate Marxist explanation of mistakes for smuggling in the bourgeois idealism implicit and distortions in the difficult period of laying the in the former. foundations of a socialist society enabled certain In spite of its incorporation of certain Marxist "moralisers" to turn criticisms of the application elements, in spite of its superficial differences of Marxism into an attack on Marxism itself. He from earlier schools of thought, existentialism is also argues that in not developing the full impli­ unquestionably a form of bourgeois idealism. cations of Marxism in respect to individuals and Although Sartre derives a philosophy of anxiety their personal relationships an area of life was and despair from the absolute freedom of the left undefended against the invasion of bourgeois individual on which optimistic philosophies were ideas. "This deficiency is demonstrated by the fact once based, this is not because existentialism is that the Revisionist tendency in our country has any the less bourgeois but only because the bour­ borrowed heavily from Existentialism and has in geoisie itself no longer enjoys an undisturbed fact been sailing under its flag." vista of the continuous progress of humanity un­ der its benign rule. 1 Published by Lawrence and Wishart at 15s. PRODUCED BY UNZ.ORG ELECTRONIC REPRODUCTION PROHIBITED 216 MARXISM TODAY, JULY 1963 The very fact that in different social contexts whose very attitudes are social products. Profes­ the doctrine of the sovereign individual will can sor Schaff believes that Marxists, while possessed result in such different attitudes toward life prac­ of the necessary dialectic for explaining the tically amounts to a refutation of any idea that nature of man-in-society, have paid insufficient the individual "is the independent creator of his attention to individual hopes and fears and have own destiny". The class character of existential­ thus allowed various forms of religion to win ism is further demonstrated by the nature of assent for their absolutist answers to certain those to whom it appeals—certainly not the human questions. Existentialism itself, even when toiling masses of Venezuela or Vietnam or professing to be atheistic, is just such a religion. France itself. It is an earnest of Marxism's pro­ Instead of postulating a god who has given man mise of a classless society that it speaks a lan­ freedom of choice in order to condemn him for guage simple enough to be grasped immediately his action in a world he is not responsible for, by the exploited millions who are the agents Sartre makes man himself his own judge in through struggle of social change and yet sophis­ respect to the use of his freedom of choice in a ticated enough to convince, if so far only par­ situation he does not control. Hence the self- tially, as urbane, though good-hearted, a bour­ loathing and despair which is not unlike the pes­ geois intellectual as Sartre. simism found in the writings of monks. But although existentialism cannot solve the The Individual and Society questions it raises. Professor Schaff argues that And yet it is not logically possible to combine the questions themselves must be considered— such disparate elements as existentialism and "questions of personal responsibility for one's Marxism in one synthetic philosophy. The basic actions, including political action in situations in­ existentialist contention that "existence is prior volving conflicts between opposing moral stand­ to essence" has entirely different consequences ards; questions also of the individual's place and from the Marxist thesis that "the social existence role in the world, which may be expressed of men determines their consciousness". The loosely as the meaning of life." Considering such abstract principle of the priority of existence over problems in a Marxist way involves deriving essence simply means, as developed by Sartre, from the general principles of historical material­ that the individual in isolation determines his own ism such propositions of socialist humanism, as: being by the free exercise of choice. In so far as "the specific understanding of the individual as his being involves relations with others, he creates a social product—as a product of the totality those very relationships by the way he chooses of social relations; the specific understanding of to act from an original voluntarism. This, of the relation of the individual to society on the course, is merely a social application of solipsism, basis of a materialist conception of social de- the philosophical cul-de-sac in which bourgeois development; and the recognition that ideals can idealism always finally fetches up. be realised only under given social conditions, What looks like a concession on Sartre's part without which recognition they degenerate into in admitting that only Marxism can account for Utopias. The socialist humanist is persuaded that he can find personal happiness only through the dynamics of a society in movement proves the happiness of society." to be meaningless as long as he maintains as the starting point of his philosophy the "free indi­ vidual". Not only is "freedom" an empty term Socialist Humanism in respect to an individual conceived to begin But this socialist humanism must be clearly with as completely detached from social in­ distinguished by its concrete and militant nature fluences, but also no multiplication of such from moralistic humanism: abstract individuals would ever add up to a con­ "Socialist humanism is concerned with the crete society. From his existentialist account realisation of humanist aims under the concrete of the individual there is no logical way for conditions of modern society divided by class Sartre to advance to the realm of those actual struggles. It hence demands not only love for social events of which he is prepared to accept the people, but hatred of their enemies. ... In a Marxist analysis. real life we are confronted, not with man in general, but with people who defend definite Marxism, however, which does not philosophise interests and are correspondingly motivated and about man in the abstract but deals with specific organised. In real life the exploiters and oppres­ men as they have developed in this or that actual sors are bound to oppose with all their strength form of social organisation, is equipped to draw the realisation of the humanist ideal, and to try scientific conclusions about society and also to to put an end to the ideology which advocates provide a reasonable account of individuals it. To be a humanist does not mean to love PRODUCED BY UNZ.ORG ELECTRONIC REPRODUCTION PROHIBITED MARXISM TODAY, JULY 1963 217 people in general, to advocate abstract pacifism, matic thought is vitiated by extreme philosophical to reject all physical struggle. To be a humanist egoism which is simply a reflection of the prac­ today, when the realisation of humanist ideals tical selfishness characterising life in the atomised is no longer a Utopia, is to be a fighter.