COMMUNICATING SCIENCE A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE COMMUNICATING SCIENCE A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE EDITED BY TOSS GASCOIGNE, BERNARD SCHIELE, JOAN LEACH, MICHELLE RIEDLINGER WITH BRUCE V. LEWENSTEIN, LUISA MASSARANI, PETER BROKS Published by ANU Press The Australian National University Acton ACT 2601, Australia Email: [email protected] Available to download for free at press.anu.edu.au ISBN (print): 9781760463656 ISBN (online): 9781760463663 WorldCat (print): 1184001419 WorldCat (online): 1184001543 DOI: 10.22459/CS.2020 This title is published under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial- NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). The full licence terms are available at creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode Cover design and layout by ANU Press Cover artwork: Acanthus by Rosalie Gascoigne, 1995 This edition © 2020 ANU Press CONTENTS Preface . ix Acknowledgements . xi 1 . Introduction: A global trend, an emerging field, a multiplicity of understandings: Science communication in 39 countries . 1 Toss Gascoigne and Bernard Schiele 2 . The Timelines: A broad‑brush analysis . 15 Bernard Schiele and Toss Gascoigne 3 . Africa: Health communication in selected African states from colonial times . 51 Margaret Kaseje and Verah Okeyo 4 . Aotearoa New Zealand: Participatory science and bicultural knowledge communication . 71 Jean S. Fleming, Nancy Longnecker, Rhian A. Salmon, and Daniel C . H . Hikuroa 5 . Argentina: Contexts, agents and practices in science communication . 103 Carina Cortassa and Cecilia Rosen 6 . Australia: The five stages of development of science communication . 125 Toss Gascoigne and Jenni Metcalfe 7 . Brazil: History, significant breakthroughs and present challenges in science communication . 155 Luisa Massarani and Ildeu de Castro Moreira 8 . Canada: One country, two cultures: Two routes to science communication . 175 Michelle Riedlinger, Alexandre Schiele and Germana Barata 9 . China: Science popularisation on the road forever . 205 Yin Lin and Li Honglin 10 . Colombia: Stories in the history of science communication . 227 Sandra Daza‑Caicedo, Luisa Barbosa‑Gómez, Tania Arboleda‑Castrillón and Marcela Lozano‑Borda 11 . Denmark, Norway and Sweden: Share, make useful and critically discuss: Science communication . 253 Per Hetland, Dick Kasperowski and Kristian H. Nielsen 12 . Estonia: Science communication in a post‑Soviet country . 279 Arko Olesk 13 . France: ‘The Republic needs scholars!’ A rapid history of making science public in 20th‑century France . 297 Andrée Bergeron 14 . Germany: Continuity and change marked by a turbulent history . 317 Hans Peter Peters, Markus Lehmkuhl and Birte Fähnrich 15 . Ghana: When individuals refuse to let science communication die . 351 Hephzi Angela Tagoe and Thomas Amatey Tagoe 16 . India: Tracing science communication in independent India . 371 Anwesha Chakraborty, Usha Raman and Poojraj Thirumal 17 . Iran: From the ancient world of Elam to modern science communication . 395 Seyede Zahra Ojagh and Zarrin Zardar 18 . Ireland: Science in a land of storytellers . 419 Pádraig Murphy 19 . Israel: Developed Science, developing Science Communication . 443 Ayelet Baram‑Tsabari, Daniela Orr, Avital Baer, Erez Garty, Yaela Golumbic, Maya Halevy, Eitan Krein, Adi Levi, Noam Leviatan, Neta Lipman, Ronen Mir and Ettay Nevo 20 . Italy: The long and winding path of science communication . 469 Giuseppe Pellegrini and Andrea Rubin 21 . Jamaica: Science communication in the land of wood and water . .. 495 Zahra H. Oliphant, Cliff K. Riley, Kerry‑Ann C. Curtis, Setu N. Monroe, Aisha D . Jones and Charah T . Watson 22 . Japan: Western science and Japanese culture . .. 521 Masataka Watanabe and Mitsuru Kudo 23 . Malaysia: Science communication in a pluralistic society . 539 Mahaletchumy Arujanan, Noorshamira Shamsuddin and Farahana Nadzri 24 . Mexico: From simple and centralised to expansion, diversity and complexity . 567 Elaine Reynoso‑Haynes, Susana Herrera‑Lima, Ana Claudia Nepote and Lourdes Patiño‑Barba 25 . The Netherlands: From the first science information officers to the Dutch Research Agenda . 597 Anne M. Dijkstra, Frans van Dam and Maarten van der Sanden 26 . Nigeria: Battling the odds: Science communication in an African state . 615 Bankole Falade, Herbert Batta and Diran Onifade 27 . Pakistan: Changing landscape of science communication . 641 Manzoor Hussain Soomro and Khalil Raza 28 . Philippines: From science then communication, to science communication . 665 Garry Jay S. Montemayor, Mariechel J. Navarro and Kamila Isabelle A. Navarro 29 . Portugal: The late bloom of (modern) science communication . 693 Marta Entradas, Luís Junqueira and Bruno Pinto 30 . Russia: Russian pendulum: From glorious science propaganda to modest public engagement initiatives . 715 Alexandra Borissova and Dmitry Malkov 31 . Singapore: An evolving and increasingly complex relationship . 743 Denise E. De Souza, Lieu Zi Zhao, Letchumi Mani, Glenn Toh and Benedict Lin 32 . South Africa: Science communication throughout turbulent times . 771 Marina Joubert and Shadrack Mkansi 33 . South Korea: A different exemplar . 801 Hak-Soo Kim 34 . Spain: Evolution and professionalisation of science communication . 825 Gema Revuelta, Vladimir de Semir and Carolina Llorente 35 . Taiwan: From nationalising science to democratising science . 849 Chun‑Ju Huang, Yuh‑Yuh Li and Yin‑Yueh Lo 36 . Thailand: From temples and palaces to modern science communication . 865 Ganigar Chen, Wijitra Suriyakul Na Ayudhya and Chanin Suriyakul Na Ayudhya 37 . Turkey: From the Ottoman Empire to the Republic . 885 Gultekin Cakmakci and Sevinc Gelmez‑Burakgazi 38 . Uganda: Cultural values and modern media as drivers of science communication . 907 Ivan Nathanael Lukanda 39 . United Kingdom: The developing relationship between science and society . 931 Melanie Smallman, Simon J. Lock and Steve Miller 40 . United States of America: Science communication in the USA: It’s complicated . 959 Bronwyn Bevan and Brooke Smith PREFACE In 2020, one can hear the provocation that ‘science is a human right’ ring louder and louder.1 At first, such an assertion seems overblown; among the human rights to which we aspire—equality, freedom from poverty, freedom of expression and freedom of assembly—‘the right to science’ seems quite far down the list of priorities. And yet, we find ourselves in the midst of so many problems where science might offer at least partial solutions—and understanding science also may help us avoid more of the problems science has already caused. Access to science and its benefits and opportunities is uneven across the world—as is the production of scientific knowledge. Further, the gains of scientific knowledge have been concentrated in wealthy regions of the globe while the costs of producing scientific knowledge and its application have been pushed to poorer regions. Better access to science, then, even in a modest way through science communication, has been one response to this inequality. At the Australian National Centre for Public Awareness of Science at The Australian National University (ANU), our mission for over 30 years has been to foster the ‘democratic ownership of science’. So, cataloguing stories of science communication from all over the world, beginning to account for the ways that science is and could be accessible to more people as well as the ways in which scientific knowledge is held to account, is an important part of our goal. We have been proud to support the project that has produced this fine volume. But this is a beginning.2 And the word ‘beginning’ is an important one; the goal of this volume was not to produce myriad ‘origin stories’ of science communication (in Australia, this would be a 60,000-year-old history of Indigenous Australians sharing knowledge), but to explore the beginning of a more recent, 20th-century common project that is being realised in multiple ways around the globe. In some countries like Australia from where I write, science communication is an academic and professional activity with government support that waxes and wanes. In other places, science 1 For example, by Shabaz Khan in a seminar he gave at the Centre for the Public Awareness of Science at ANU: cpas.anu.edu.au/news-events/events/lunchtime-seminar-professor-shahbaz-khan- director-unesco-regional-science-bureau. 2 See Edward Said (1985). Beginnings: Intention and Method. New York: Columbia University Press. ix Communicating SCIENCE communication is a form of activism; in still others, it is seen as part of science itself. Sometimes the goal of science communication is education, other times it is a way of sharing the creation of knowledge and yet other times science communication is about addressing items of concern—health, climate, environment, technology. And so, a beginning is a messy thing that struggles to contain all the different possibilities that a story can tell. This volume celebrates that with a proliferation of terminology, goals and aims— and the authors, while lucid, sophisticated and bringing substantial analytic skills to bear, also acknowledge a glorious mess that is science communication as it evolves from its 20th-century beginnings. Finally, a note on methods. In some parts of the world, including Australia, empirical methods in science communication thrive and, for the most part, this is a happy advancement of the field. However, the methods of history, also empirical—of collecting evidence in an archive of sorts, of telling stories and gathering a corpus that will guide future work—are