Geography Key concepts SECONDARY Great scientists is a collective work, conceived, designed and created 3 by the Secundary Education department at Santillana, under the supervision of Teresa Grence. WRITERS Fernando Abascal Pedro Adiego Olga Cabeza Víctor Lallana Rosa López Joseph Hopkins Juan Martín Ana Redondo Raquel Rubalcaba María Luisa Vázquez Javier Velilla EDITORS Raquel Rubalcaba Sara J. Checa Víctor Lallana Heather Sutton EXECUTIVE EDITOR David Ramírez PROJECT DIRECTOR Lourdes Etxebarria BILINGUAL PROJECT DIRECTOR Margarita España Do not write in this book. Do all the activities in your notebook. INDEX 1. Physical geography 4 6. Mining, energy and industry 66 1. The Earth’s relief 1. Mining 2. Climates and landscapes 2. Energy sources 3. The physical environment of Europe 3. The origins and development of industry 4. Physical map of the world 4. Location of an industry 5. Relief and water in Spain 5. The industrial powers 6. Climates and landscapes in Spain 6. Mining, energy and industry in Spain 2. Territorial organisation 18 1. What is a state? 2. States of the world 3. Cooperation between states 4. The European Union 5. The Spanish State 3. World population 30 1. Studying population 2. Population ageing 3. Migration 4. Europe’s demographic diversity 5. The population of Spain 4. The world: a globalised economy 42 1. Economic activity 2. Globalisation 3. The rise of emerging economies 4. The traditional powers 7. Services 80 5. Work challenges around the world 1. The tertiary sector 2. Trade 3. Transport 4. Tourism 5. Other services 6. Services in Spain 8. Development 94 1. What is development? 2. Extreme poverty and hunger 3. Types of inequality 5. The primary sector 52 4. Overcoming underdevelopment 5. Poverty and exclusion in Spain 1. The primary sector and agrarian landscapes 2. Agriculture in developed regions 9. Environmental sustainability 104 3. Agriculture in less developed regions 4. Livestock farming and fishing 1. Environmental degradation 5. The primary sector in the European Union 2. Water supply and deforestation 6. The primary sector in Spain 3. The loss of biodiversity and soil degradation 3 1 Physical geography 1 The Earth's relief GLOSSARY Relief The variations in elevation of the Earth's crust are Glacier: mass of ice that accumulates in mountains. called relief. It flows like a river, but very slowly. These variations are found on the surface of our Plate tectonics: the Earth's crust is made up of continents and on the ocean bed. (1) plates which float on the top layer of the mantle, moving very slowly. Relief is constantly changing. However, these changes take place over a very long period of time, so we do not perceive them. These changes are the result of both endogenous processes, which take place inside the Earth, and exogenous processes, which occur on the Earth's surface. 1. CONTINENTAL AND OCEANIC RELIEF mountain range peak Valleys are areas of low land between mountains. Plateaus are highplains. Depressions are very low areas that may even be below sea level. Plains are flat areas of land. The relief formed by endogenous processes is caused by the movement of the Earth's crust (plate tectonics). Plates separate and form cracks (rifts), or collide into each other. This either pushes one plate below the other, or alters the Earth's surface (faults and folds). Water ACTIVITIES Water is a precious and scarce resource. Some water is found on the continents, but most of it is in the oceans and seas. • Define: relief, plain, plateau, valley, mid-ocean ridge, lake, aquifer, wave. Rivers, lakes, groundwater and ice contain fresh water, which makes up about 3% of the Earth's water. • What are the main forms of • Rivers are continuous flows of water. Rivers flow into a sea or continental relief? a lake. Tributaries flow into another river. • Which types of relief are found Continental • Lakes are enclosed masses of water which accumulate in in a coastal landscape? water depressions. Salt water lakes are called inland seas. • An underground water deposit is called an aquifer. • Most fresh water is held in the form of ice at the polar ice caps and in mountain glaciers. Oceans and seas hold 97% of the Earth's water. They are in constant movement: • Marine currents are masses of water which move like rivers through the oceans. A warm current has a higher temperature than Marine the surrounding water. A cold current has a lower temperature. water • Tides are the daily rise and fall in the sea level caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun. High tide is when the sea level rises, and low tide is when it falls. • Waves are the undulating movements of water on the surface of the sea, caused by the wind. Relief can also be formed by exogenous processes such as erosion, transport and sedimentation. Temperature, wind and water (rivers, seas, etc.) are the main agents of these processes, all of which modify relief. island Abyssal plains are vast plateaus at a depth of 3000-7000 m. gulf peninsula A continental shelf is a large plateau beach close to the coast. Mid-ocean ridges are long mountain ridges in the centre of oceans. cape Ocean trenches are long, deep cracks cliff in the ocean floor. A continental slope is relief with a steep drop. 2 Climates and landscapes GLOSSARY Climates There are five main climate zones. They can be Conifer forest: forest made up of evergreen species grouped according to latitude: such as fir and pine trees. • A hot zone, between the tropics. The average Temperature variation: difference between annual temperature is over 20 ºC. the highest and lowest temperatures over a period • Two temperate zones (30º-60º latitude in both of time. hemispheres). There is a clear seasonal difference between summer and winter. • Two cold zones (60º-90º latitude in both hemispheres). The temperatures are low all year round. Altitude, relief and proximity to the sea also influence climate. There are different types of climate within each main climate zone: hot (equatorial, tropical and desert), temperate (Mediterranean, oceanic and continental) and cold (polar and mountain). (2) ACTIVITIES Climate has a big influence on human societies. Extreme temperatures and humidity make it difficult • How many climate zones does the Earth have? for populations to settle and to carry out certain What are they? economic activities: deserts, forests, high mountains • Define these terms: tundra, moor. and the polar regions are sparsely populated. The majority of the world's population lives in temperate zones. 2. THE EARTH'S CLIMATES Arct 0° Ar ic Cir 0° ctic C cle A R C T I C O C E A N ircle A R C T I C O C E A N Climate zones Climate zones Cold zones PACIFIC Cold zones PACIFIC Temperate zones OCEAN Temperate zones OCEAN PACIFIC PACIFIC Hot zones OCEAN Hot zones OCEAN Hot climates Hot climates Tropic of Cancer Tropic of Cance Equatorial r Equatorial Tropical wet Tropical wet Equator Tropical dry Equator Tropical dry ATLANTIC Desert ATLANTIC Desert INDIAN OCEAN INDIAN Temperate climates OCEAN OCEAN Temperate climates Tropic of Capricorn OCEAN Mediterranean Tropic of Capricorn Mediterranean and similar and similar climates climates Continental Continental Oceanic Oceanic Cold climates Greenwich Meridian Cold climates Greenwich Meridian Scale Polar 0Scale 1,255 Polar 0 1,255 tic Circle SOUTHERN High mountain kilometres Antarc Circle High mountain kilometres ntarctic SOUTHERNOCEAN A OCEAN 6 Physical geography 1 CLIMATES AND LANDSCAPES CLIMATE LOCATION TEMPERATURES PRECIPITATION LANDSCAPE Average annual temperatures are Total annual rainfall is higher Equatorial Near the Equator. around 25 ºC, with little variation than 2000 mm. It rains every Rainforest in annual temperature. month. The total annual rainfall ranges Between 10º and Average annual temperature is over Tropical between 2000 mm and less Tropical 30º N and 10º and 20 ºC. There are variations of between rainforest and than 400 mm. Seasons alternate 30º S. 3 ºC and 10 ºC. savannah. (3) between dry and wet. HOT CLIMATES HOT Found at the same Average temperatures are high, Scarce, under 250 mm, and Desert latitudes as over 20 ºC. There are big differences Desert irregularly distributed. tropical climates. between day and night. Average annual temperature between Ranges between 900 mm and Between latitudes Mediterranean Mediterranean 10 °C and 18 °C. Temperature variations 300 mm a year. Distribution 30º and 40º in both woodland and and similar of between 12 ºC and 16 ºC. Summers is irregular and summers are hemispheres. scrub. are hot and winters are mild. very dry. Between 40º and Average annual temperature between Annual total is around 50º latitude (and 10 °C and 15 °C. Little temperature Deciduous forest Oceanic 1000 mm. It is regular even up to 60º) in variation. Winters are mild and and moors. (4) throughout the year. both hemispheres. summers are cool. Average annual temperature between TEMPERATE CLIMATES TEMPERATE Inland, in North Ranges between 750 mm and Taiga or conifer 0 °C and 10 °C. Very high temperature Continental America, Europe 300 mm. It is irregular, with the forests. Prairies variations. Winters are long and cold, and Asia. highest precipitation in summer. and steppes. and summers are short and hot. Average annual temperatures are Tundra (an area Scarce, less than 250 mm Polar Near the poles. below 0 ºC. It is never higher than of mosses and annually. It mainly falls as snow. 10 ºC. lichens). (5) Temperatures decrease with altitude. Vegetation varies High mountainous Mountain Summers are short and cool. Winters Increases with altitude. according to areas. COLD CLIMATES are long and very cold. altitude. 3. Savannah. It is mainly grassland, 4. Moor. The vegetation consists 5.