Water Quality Association Annual Education Kit Volume X – Article 4 POU Reverse Osmosis Performance and Sizing (Excerpted from WQA’s Online Knowledge Base) Reverse Osmosis Performance Factors Factors that can affect a reverse osmosis system’s performance include temperature, operating pressure, back pressure, the equilibrium effect/TDS creep, percent recovery, and, of course, the RO membrane’s permeate production and percent rejection ratings. Temperature Water temperature is a major factor in determining the RO production rate because it increases or decreases the viscosity of water. Colder feedwater has higher viscosity (thicker water) and requires more pressure to push it through the membrane. The higher pressure requirement slows down production rate. Warmer water has lower viscosity (thinner water), which requires less pressure to push it through the membrane, increasing the production rate. For predicting a more exact production rate at higher or lower temperatures, refer to a temperature conversion chart from the manufacturer of the particular membrane being used. As an estimate, the permeate flow rate can be expected to increase 3% for every 1 oC increase in temperature. Increased temperature also increases the rate of salt passage across the membrane by about 6% for every 1 oC as a result of the thermodynamic energy increase to the salt diffusion process. To convert oC to oF, use the formula below. oC x 1.8 + 32 = oF To reduce sources responsible for temperature variance in POU/POE applications, avoid installing the RO system too close to a hot water line; the distance varies depending on whether the system is installed as POU or whole house. Differential Pressure The required operating pressure for a reverse osmosis system will be provided by the manufacturer. The actual operating pressure available for a given installation, known as the differential pressure or the net driving pressure, will be the difference between the forward pressure (feedwater pressure) provided by the distribution system and the osmotic pressure. In POU air‐on‐water applications, the pressurized storage tank will also back pressure, roughly equal to the air pre‐charge on the tank. In some private well applications, the well pump pressure is too low compared to the back pressure and a booster pump may be required. To determine if a booster pump is needed, use the formula below to calculate differential pressure at the membrane. ©2013 Water Quality Association Water Quality Association Annual Education Kit Volume X – Article 4 Differential pressure = Feedwater pressure – (osmotic pressure + storage tank back pressure) Low differential pressure can negatively affect both water quality and quantity. If the water supply pressure is too low it might not provide the water production rate required for the customer's needs. Also, it might not provide adequate permeate water quality with sufficiently reduced contaminants. If the pressure is too high the water can bypass the membrane (as bleed‐through or channeling around the membrane). A restrictor could be used to correct for this situation. Generally speaking, the pressure from a municipal source should be sufficient for the RO to operate properly. Pressure in private wells can be problematic. In some cases, where RO treatment is needed both for a faucet and an application such as an ice maker that requires higher permeate pressure, a delivery pump may be needed to increase pressure in the distribution line to the ice maker. Osmotic Pressure Osmotic pressure is related to the natural process of osmosis, where water flows through a semipermeable membrane from the side with a lower concentration of dissolved solids to the side with a higher concentration of dissolved solids. The reverse osmosis process has to overcome osmotic pressure to operate. Osmotic pressure depends on the total dissolved solids in the feed water (the higher the TDS level, the greater pressure required) and is often estimated as 1 psi for every 100 mg/L TDS. While this estimate is not an exact value for all possible combinations of water constituents, it is sufficient for calculations of performance. In critical, health‐related or manufacturing applications, RO systems should be pilot tested to ensure proper operation. Back Pressure Back pressure is created by the filling of the storage (or “pressure”) tank. The RO system’s performance depends on the pressure tank’s ability to exert pressure on the water stored in the tank to deliver it from the tank to either the faucet or the distribution system. In air‐on‐water systems, the tank contains a pre‐charged air bladder that compresses as water fills the tank. When the air can no longer be compressed, no additional water can enter the tank. The more air that is in the tank, the less water the tank can store. As the tank fills and the bladder is compressed, a backward pressure is exerted on the RO membrane, reducing the available operating pressure. Once the differential pressure is decreased to the limit corresponding to the shut‐off pressure, the auto shut‐off mechanism turns off the RO water production. In some systems, the RO continues to process water but the permeate is sent to waste. WQA strongly recommends that all residential RO systems use a functioning auto shut‐off mechanism to reduce wasted water. However, some health‐critical applications may be more sensitive to TDS creep, requiring ©2013 Water Quality Association Water Quality Association Annual Education Kit Volume X – Article 4 that the water treatment professional properly evaluate the effects of TDS creep on final storage tank water quality. Storage tanks have a valve that allows for the air pressure to be set. Typically, pressure is set between 5 and 10 psi (0.34 to 0.68 atm). Several trials may be needed to determine the optimum setting that provides sufficient permeate delivery pressure to the point of use while allowing enough space in the tank to accumulate the appropriate volume of water to meet the customer’s usage patterns. Storage tank back pressure is a key factor when troubleshooting RO performance. Percent Recovery Percent recovery is the term used to describe how much water a unit can produce vs. the volume of raw water it’s fed. The percent recovery at which a membrane is operated will directly affect the quality and quantity of permeate; as the recovery is increased, so is the TDS concentration of the permeate as it exits the membrane. Thus, increasing the percent recovery decreases the water quality. Equilibrium Effect/TDS Creep When the storage tank is full and the feed water is shut off, the diffusion of ions continues through the membrane into the product water. The typical result is a higher TDS concentration when the water is first drawn (e.g., morning use) due to lack of pressure from a system that sat idle. The water quality should improve after 5‐10 minutes of use. If the RO is applied for the reduction of health‐related contaminants, customers may be counseled to discard the first several glasses of water. Permeate Production Permeate production is related to the RO membrane’s rating. For example, a 25 gal/day membrane can make about one gallon of purified water per hour, when operated at the same conditions the manufacturer used to rate the system. If the storage tank on that system can hold 3 gallons of water and the end‐user needs to draw 4 gallons all at once, the system will be able to supply 3 gallons immediately and will require an additional hour to produce the 4th gallon. Percent Rejection If removing TDS or a health‐related contaminant, it’s important to know how well the RO membrane rejects that contaminant. The percentage of the feed water contaminant concentration that is prevented from passing through the membrane with the permeate is known as the percent rejection, or ©2013 Water Quality Association Water Quality Association Annual Education Kit Volume X – Article 4 % rejection. An RO membrane’s % rejection depends on the manufacturer and operating conditions. Most manufacturers will have their own charts with % rejection ratings. RO Membrane Functionality To better understand how an RO membrane functions, two equations are useful. These equations describe the transport of water and dissolved minerals from the feed to the permeate side of the membrane. Water transport through the membrane is a function of differential pressure, and can be stated as follows: JW = KW(ΔP‐Δπ) where: JW = rate of water passage through the membrane. KW = permeability coefficient for water for a particular membrane, thus area and thickness are included. P = pressure. π = osmotic pressure. Membranes also permit some salt passage. This process is described mathematically as follows: JS=KSΔC where: JS= rate of salt passage through the membrane. KS = permeability coefficient for salt for a particular membrane, thus area and thickness are included. C = salt concentration. From this expression salt transport is independent of system differential pressure. The most important facts to remember about these equations are: 1. Water passage is a function of differential pressure. The rate of water passage through the membrane is dependent on the difference between the pressure applied (feedwater pressure), the osmotic pressure, and the storage tank backpressure. The applied pressure will decrease as pressure in the storage tank increases (and pushes back). This means the water flow will slow down. ©2013 Water Quality Association Water Quality Association Annual Education Kit Volume X – Article 4 2. Salt passage is a function of differential concentration. Salt passage (i.e. % rejection) is dependent on the difference in concentration of the dissolved substances on the different sides of the membrane. 3. Water quality will degrade as the water flow through the membrane slows down (“TDS creep”). “[As stated above,] the rate of salt passage through the membrane is not a function of pressure, whereas the water flow rate is.