NOTES Note to the Acknowledgments 1. Although early medieval Gaul itself has not been the exclusive subject of such a work due to the incomplete nature of the primary sources, some helpful resources include: Don Brothwell and Patricia Brothwell, Food in Antiquity:A Survey of the Diet of Early Peoples, expanded ed. (Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1969); Jean-Louis Flandrin and Massimo Montanari, eds., Food:A Culinary History from Antiquity to the Present (New York:Columbia University Press, 1999); Kathy L. Pearson,“Nutrition and the Early-Medieval Diet,” Speculum 72 (1997), pp. 1–32; Ann Hagen, A Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Food and Drink, 2 vols. (Hockwold cum Wilton: Anglo-Saxon Books, 1992–1995). Notes to the Introduction 1. Among the recent introductory works on the political organization of Merovingian Gaul, see: J. M.Wallace-Hadrill, The Long-Haired Kings, Me- dieval Academy of America Reprints for Teaching (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1982); Eugen Ewig, Die Merowinger und das Frankenreich, Urban-Taschenbücher 392 (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1988); Patrick J. Geary, Before France and Germany: The Creation and Transformation of the Merovingian World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); Edward James, The Franks (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988); Reinhold Kaiser, Das römische Erbe und das Merowingerreich, revised edition, Enzyklopädie deutscher Geschichte 26 (Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1997); Roger Collins, Early Medieval Europe 300–1000, second edition (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), pp. 161–172. 2. Gender and women were not categories, for instance, officially addressed in the five-year project entitled “Transformation of the Roman World” sponsored by the European Science Foundation (1993–1997). Thomas F. X. Noble, “The Transformation of the Roman World: Reflections on Five Years of Work,”in East and West: Modes of Communication. Proceedings of the First Plenary Conference at Merida, edited by Evangelos Chrysos and Ian Wood,TRW 5 (Leiden:E. J. Brill, 1999), p. 269; Julia M. H. Smith, “Did Women Have a Transformation of the Roman World?” Gender & History 12 (2000), pp. 552–553. 98 CREATING COMMUNITY WITH FOOD AND DRINK 3. Ian Wood, The Merovingian Kingdoms 450–751 (London: Longmans, 1994), pp. 120–139. 4. For the recent state of the field, see: Hans-Werner Goetz, Frauen im frühen Mittelalter. Frauenbild und Frauenleben im Frankenreich (Weimar: Böhlau Ver- lag, 1995), pp. 395–397. 5. Janet Nelson, “Queens as Jezebels: Brunhild and Balthild in Merovingian History,” in her Politics and Ritual in Early Medieval Europe (London: Ham- bledon Press, 1986), pp. 1–48. 6. Elizabeth A. Clark,“The Lady Vanishes: Dilemmas of a Feminist Historian after the ‘Linguistic Turn,’” Church History 67 (1998), p. 31. 7. Suzanne Fonay Wemple, Women in Frankish Society: Marriage and the Cloister 500 to 900 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985), pp. 28–31. 8. Isabel Moreira, Dreams,Visions and Spiritual Authority in Merovingian Gaul (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000); Lynda Coon, Sacred Fictions: Holy Women and Hagiography in Late Antiquity (Philadelphia: University of Penn- sylvania Press, 1997); Guy Halsall, Settlement and Social Organization: The Merovingian Region of Metz (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Giselle de Nie, Views from a Many-Windowed Tower: Studies of Imagi- nation in the Works of Gregory of Tours, Studies in Classical Antiquity 7 (Am- sterdam: Rodopi, 1987). 9. Michael Mann, The Sources of Social Power, 1: A History from the Beginning to A. D. 1760 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 1–27. 10. Fredrick Barth, “Towards Greater Naturalism in Conceptualizing Soci- eties,” in Conceptualizing Society, edited by Adam Kuper (London: Rout- ledge, 1982), pp. 17–33. 11. For an exploration of the difficulties of retrieving accurate evidence about women in early medieval Irish society since all extant records were writ- ten from the perspective of men, see: Lisa M. Bitel, Land of Women:Tales of Sex and Gender from Early Ireland (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996). 12. Averil Cameron, “Social Language and its Private Deployment,” in East and West: Modes of Communication. Proceedings of the First Plenary Conference at Merida, edited by Evangelos Chrysos and Ian Wood, pp. 122–125. 13. Dick Harrison, The Age of Abbesses and Queens: Gender and Political Culture in Early Medieval Europe (Lund: Nordic Academic Press, 1998), pp. 18–19, 75–76. 14. Jürgen Hannig, “Ars donandi: Zur Ökonomie des Schenkens im früheren Mittelalter,” in Armut, Liebe, Ehre: Studien zur historische Kulturforschung, edited by Richard van Dülmen (Frankfurt: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag GmbH, 1988), pp. 11–37. 15. Although he recognizes the challenges faced by women who wished to as- sert authority,Hans-Werner Goetz denies the existence of gender-specific qualities that characterized women’s methods or contributions. Hans- Werner Goetz, “Frauenbild und weibliche Lebensgestaltung im fränkischen Reich,” in his Weibliche Lebensgestaltung im frühen Mittelalter (Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 1991), pp. 21–29. NOTES 99 16. Catherine Peyroux,“Gertrude’s furor: Reading Anger in an Early Medieval Saint’s Life,” in Anger’s Past:The Social Uses of an Emotion in the Middle Ages, edited by Barbara H. Rosenwein (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998), pp. 36–55. 17. Even biased inquisitorial records can help historians gain important insights into popular belief. See Carlo Ginzburg,“The Inquisitor as Anthropologist,” in his Clues, Myths and the Historical Method, translated by John and Anne Tedeschi (Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1986),pp.156–164. 18. James Fentress and Chris Wickham, Social Memory (Oxford: Basil Black- well, 1992), pp. 146–154. 19. For a convincing assessment of the potential contributions to be made by hagiography to research on early medieval Gaul, see: Paul Fouracre, “Merovingian History and Merovingian Hagiography,” Past and Present 127 (1990), pp. 3–38; Ian Wood,“The Use and Abuse of Latin Hagiogra- phy in the Early Medieval West,”in East and West: Modes of Communication. Proceedings of the First Plenary Conference at Merida, edited by Evangelos Chrysos and Ian Wood, pp. 93–109. 20. Mann, The Sources of Social Power 1, pp. 22–23. 21. Andrew McGowan, Ascetic Eucharists: Food and Drink in Early Christian Rit- ual Meals (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999), pp. 3–7. 22. Massimo Montanari, The Culture of Food, translated by Carl Ipsen (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), pp. 15–16. 23. Paul Connerton, How Societies Remember (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- sity Press, 1989), pp. 45–47; Maurice Halbwachs, On Collective Memory, edited and translated by Lewis A. Coser (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp. 87–88. 24. Marcel Mauss, The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies, translated by Ian Cunnison (New York:W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1967), pp. 10–12. 25. Georges Bataille,“The Notion of Expenditure,”in Visions of Excess: Selected Writings, 1927–1939, edited and translated by Allan Stoekl, Theory and History of Literature 14 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985), pp. 120–123. 26. Mary Douglas,“Deciphering a Meal,”in Food and Culture:A Reader, edited by Carole Counihan and Penny van Esterik (New York:Routledge, 1997), pp. 41–45. 27. Carl Deroux, “Des traces inconnues de la Dietétique d’Anthime dans un manuscrit du Vatican (Reg. Lat. 1004),” Latomus 33 (1974), p. 685; Mireille Corbier,“The Broad Bean and the Moray: Social Hierarchies and Food in Rome,” in Food: A Culinary History from Antiquity to the Present, edited by Jean-Louis Flandrin and Massimo Montanari (New York:Columbia Uni- versity Press, 1999), pp. 128–140. 28. John Moreland, “Concepts of the Early Medieval Economy,” in The Long Eighth Century, edited by Inge Lyse Hansen and Chris Wickham,TRW 11 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2000), pp. 18–34. 100 CREATING COMMUNITY WITH FOOD AND DRINK 29. Christine A. Hastorf, “Gender, Space and Prehistory,” in Engendering Ar- chaeology:Women and Prehistory, edited by Joan M. Gero and Margaret W. Conkey (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), pp. 132–136. 30. Stéphane Lebecq,“The Role of Monasteries in the Systems of Production and Exchange of the Frankish World between the Seventh and the Begin- ning of the Ninth Centuries,” in The Long Eighth Century, pp. 129–133. 31. Caroline Walker Bynum,“Fast, Feast and Flesh:The Religious Significance of Food to Medieval Women,”in Food and Culture:A Reader, pp. 138–141. 32. Rudolph Arbesmann,“Fasting and Prophecy in Pagan and Christian An- tiquity,” Traditio 7 (1949), p. 8. 33. Igor Kopytoff, “The Cultural Biography of Things: Commoditization as Process,” in The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective, edited by Arjun Appadurai (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), pp. 64–70. 34. Walter Pohl,“Telling the Difference: Signs of Ethnic Identity,” in Strategies of Distinction: The Construction of Ethnic Communities, 300–700, edited by Walter Pohl and Helmut Reimitz, TRW 2 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1998), pp. 17–69; Bonnie Effros, “Appearance and Ideology: Creating Distinctions between Merovingian Clerics and Lay Persons,” in Encountering Medieval Textiles and Dress: Objects,Texts, Images, edited by Janet Snyder and Désirée Koslin (New York:Palgrave Macmillan, forthcoming). 35. Paul Fouracre,“The Work of Audoenus of Rouen and Eligius of Noyon in Extending Episcopal Influence from the Town to the Country in Seventh- Century Neustria,” in The Church in Town and Countryside. Papers Read at the Seventeenth Summer Meeting and Eighteenth Winter Meeting of the Ecclesi- astical History Society, edited by Derek Baker, Studies in Church History 16 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1979), pp. 82–83. 36. Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger:An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (New York:Praeger, 1966), pp. 50–52. 37. Peter Brown,“The Decline of the Empire of God: Amnesty, Penance and the Afterlife from Late Antiquity to the Middle Ages,”in Last Things: Death and the Apocalypse in the Middle Ages, edited by Caroline Walker Bynum and Paul Freedman (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000), pp.