BETWEEN PRAYER AND PROTEST: GULLAH IDENTITY IN THE AFTERMATH OF THE CHARLESTON SHOOTING Elijah Heyward, III A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of American Studies in the College of Arts and Sciences. Chapel Hill 2018 Approved by: Glenn Hinson William R. Ferris Sharon P. Holland Patricia Sawin Heather A. Williams © 2018 Elijah Heyward, III ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT Elijah Heyward, III: Between Prayer and Protest: Gullah Identity in the Aftermath of the Charleston Shooting (Under the direction of Glenn Hinson) “Between Prayer and Protest: Contemporary Gullah Identity in the Aftermath of the Charleston Shooting” explores contemporary Gullah identities through the lens of the horrific shooting at Mother Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church in Charleston, South Carolina. Coverage of the event highlighted the prayers and forgiveness by Mother Emanuel’s members, with little attention paid to the cultural context of Charleston’s Gullah population. Through a critical exploration of Gullah spirituality, Gullah familial networks, and Gullah expressive culture, my project endeavors to complicate the narratives so often told about Gullah people, by exploring the often overlooked role of subversion and agency that has historically sustained the community. My fieldwork in the Gullah diaspora is complemented by a historical investigation of how Gullah identities were crafted by cultural outsiders. Gullah consciousness guides and informs Gullah community life. Through interviews with Gullah natives, my dissertation interrogates the commodification of Gullah identity, while exploring how Gullah people reclaim and wrestle with the imminent impacts of migration and economic barriers in the 21st century. The work of counter-curators explicitly and implicitly encourages a re- examination of what it means to be Gullah, and invites us to explore Gullah identity in provocative and nuanced ways. Artist like Charmaine Bee and Sheldon Scott explicitly challenge historical tropes through their multi-media art projects that explore racial violence, gender and sexuality, and Gullah futures. The implicit work rests in the everydayness of Gullah traditions that, when explored beyond the surface, highlight the dynamism of cultural practice that transcends outsider representations. For iii instance, the intentionality around godparenting in the Gullah context persists as an example of the Gullah community’s singular commitment to child rearing and the transmission of values. This exploration takes readers beyond the South Carolina Lowcountry, to a discussion of the ways that Gullah values are creatively employed by Gullah people within a broader diaspora. This diaspora, which I refer to as the Gullah diaspora, functions as a literal and theoretical framework for engaging evolving notions of community. iv To Cynthia Hurd, Suzie Jackson, Ethel Lance, DePayne Middleton-Doctor, Rev. Dr. Clementa Pinckney, Tywanza Sanders, Daniel Simmons, Sharonda Singleton, and Myra Thompson, May your witness to the world inspire others for generations to come, as it has so deeply inspired me. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe an invaluable debt to my community, the men and women on Coosaw Island and Sams Point in Beaufort, South Carolina who raised me in and beyond the Friendship Baptist Church. Their unconditional sacrifice and love has propelled me into a reality that we could never imagine. It was the chicken dinners, five-dollar bills folded up in foil, affirming smiles and nods as I gave my Easter and Christmas piece, the prayers, and the sharing of generations-old lessons about pure and useful living that has guided my life to this moment. My island community is part of a greater network of teachers, mentors, coaches, employers, activists, and local leaders who have collectively inspired me as a young man to embrace my full potential. Educators from all walks of life encouraged a shy young man who felt isolated to find his voice and place in the world through service. I especially want to thank Mr. Daniels for being my math tutor from the 6th grade to college. He transformed my fear of Geometry into one of my greatest passions; Mrs. Faulkner and Mrs. Mann for their early and sustained influence; Mrs. Clarke, Mr. DC Mahaga Campbell, and Mrs. Lyle for supporting my journey to college; and Mr. Drake and Mr. Ulmer for granting, and mentoring me through, one of the most important leadership opportunities and dreams of my teenage years. My scholarly journey is only possible through the example of scholars who have influenced my life. These scholars range from the writers and thinkers who populated my parents’ fireplace book collection, and the many elders who allowed me to sit at their feet. My earliest memories are of attending class with my mother at South Carolina State College, a memory that continues to inspire my deep passion for the power of public education. My parents also exposed me to the work of Dr. Benjamin Elijah Mays, and Dr. John Hope Franklin, whose painting I often worked under during vi late night writing sessions at Duke University. These early influences ignited my passion for history and social justice. My early appreciation for the arts was nurtured through phenomenal instructors, most recently Thomas S. Rankin, Bill Bamberger and my colleagues Jon-Sesrie Goff and Madeleine Hunt Ehrlich. Thank you Jon and Madeline for your brilliance and artistry that make me a deeper thinker and better photographer and artist. I am also grateful for the artistry and engagement of Mr. Jonathan Green, Ms. Charmaine Bee, and Mr. Sheldon Scott. My journey was enhanced by a group of individuals who I like to refer to as my “counsel of PhDs,” who have been my mentors during this process: Dr. David Driskell, Dr. Adrienne Childs, Dr. Faith Mitchell, Dr. Yolanda Smith, Dr. Emilie Townes, Dr. Nathan Alexander, Dr. James Moore, Dr. Nadia Ward, Dr. Meredith Coleman-Tobias, Dr. Robert Bland, Dr. William B. Allen, Dr. Freddye Davy, Dr. JoAnne Haysbert, and Dr. Alisha Lola Jones. Thank you for inspiring me through your scholarship and commitment to excellence. You offered an early glimpse into what it means to be a scholar, and have nurtured me before and during this process in very important ways. I would like to especially thank my friends and colleagues Dr. DeMarcus Pegues and Dr. Jarvis C. McInnis for the important role that they have played during this process. Your unconditional support and patience represent the best that our faith has to offer. My scholarship has also been enriched from being in conversation with exceptional thinkers like Ms. Kimber Thomas, Ms. Terryn Hall, Ms. Diane Exavier, Dr. LaRhonda Manigault-Bryant, Dr. Jason R. Yong, and Ms. Michele Lanier. Thank you for your feedback and encouragement. I recall the moment that the magic of libraries first came alive for me. I was in elementary school and reached an impasse on a research project, likely my first. I made my way to the research librarian on staff who transformed my frustration into an oasis of hope by opening a portal of information. That moment has remained a defining moment for me as it gave me an early appreciation for librarians, libraries, and research. My research has benefitted from the resources of vii my alma maters Hampton University and Yale University. I would also like to thank the Duke University library system for your hospitality and care. Penn Center’s archives at the University of North Carolina and local holdings in Beaufort, South Carolina also played an important role in the development of my project. I am also grateful for the funding to pursue and present my scholarship offered by the University of North Carolina’s Graduate School, the Royster Society of Fellows, the Center for the Study of the American South, the North Carolina Documentary Photography Award, and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Department of American Studies. My colleagues in the Department of American Studies and various other departments at the University of Chapel Hill are among the most amazing individuals that I have had the opportunity to collaborate with and learn from. I am also deeply indebted to my advisor Dr. Glenn Hinson for his guidance and mentorship during this process, as well as my committee members Dr. William Ferris, Dr. Sharon Holland, Dr. Patricia Sawin, and Dr. Heather Williams. My University of North Carolina experience was shaped by a fellowship at the Ackland Art Museum where I had the pleasure learning from a stellar team of professionals like Dr. Carolyn Allmendinger, while contributing to meaningful projects led by scholars and curators like Dr. Bernie Herman. My family and friends have been my greatest support system during this process. My grandparents Annie and Benjamin Smalls and Ethel and Elijah Heyward Sr. provided a foundation of love and support that gave me early lessons in compassion and fearlessness. My godmother, aunts and uncles, brother and brother-in-law, godbrothers and godsisters, and cousins are my greatest champions and teachers. I am especially grateful for my god daughters Ava and Madison, nieces Koryn, Karis and Leila, and nephews Andrew, Davis, Emory, Jalen, Micah and younger cousins Creed, Gemma, and Chase for the play therapy and reminding me of what matters most. I am also blessed to have several mentees and little brothers who have offered me encouragement and the blessing of brotherhood. viii My sisters Monica, Brooke, and Jamonie have been a constant presence and wellspring of hope for me at every juncture of this experience. Thank you for believing in me, loving hard, and being there when it counts. Finally, I would like to thank Uncle Bernard and Aunt Beverly for being amazing bonus parents to Monica and me. You not only affirmed our parents’ values but offered the “little extra” along the way.