COLLECTIVE RAPE: A CROSS-NATIONAL STUDY OF THE INCIDENCE AND PERPETRATORS OF MASS POLITICAL SEXUAL VIOLENCE, 1980-2003 DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Jennifer Lynn Green, M.A. **************** The Ohio State University 2006 Dissertation Committee: Approved by: Dr. J. Craig Jenkins, Advisor Dr. Kazimierz Slomczynski ________________________ Advisor Dr. Pamela Paxton Graduate Program in Sociology Copyright by Jennifer Lynn Green 2006 ii ABSTRACT Collective rape has garnered considerable worldwide attention in recent years but systematic documentation and empirical research are still lacking. Basic questions about when and where collective rape has occurred and what factors contribute to this crime remain unanswered. This project addresses those questions through a cross-national cross-time study of collective rape episodes from 1980 to 2003. Collective rape is defined as a pattern of sexual violence perpetrated on civilians by agents of a state or political civil group and measured through two indicators of occurrence or non- occurrence in various countries and years. Data was collected from three news sources— World News Digest Facts on File, The New York Times, and Reuters Business Briefs— and information of the timing, location, perpetrators and victims was recorded. In total 37 episodes of collective rape were identified. Episodes were more prevalent in Africa and Asia, and the 1990s as compared to the 1980s. The perpetrators were most often agents of a government (such as the military), but political civil groups also participated. Collective rape has been perpetrated widely through all segments of the population (women are the overwhelming majority) but, in some episodes, victims were targeted based on their ethnicity or political affiliations. The literature on collective rape, interpersonal rape and political violence suggested seven theoretical models of collective ii rape occurrence. Analysis found full or partial support for the hypotheses that gender inequality, militarization, armed conflict, ethnic cleavages, economic development and state structure contribute to the presence of collective rape in a country. High levels of state terrorism, or government-sponsored murder, torture, and imprisonment—was the most consistent predictor of collective rape. These results show that collective rape, while pervasive across time and regions, may be more likely to occur in some societies than others. Suggestions for further research include improved data on collective rape occurrence and severity, additional tests of some hypotheses, and analysis of government versus non-government perpetration. iii DEDICATION Dedicated to my mother— who instilled in me a social conscience and love of education And to the many victims of collective rape— who I hope may one day benefit from the values my mother gave me iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to first thank my advisor, Craig Jenkins, for his unwavering support, encouragement and enthusiasm. He had faith in me and this project when few others did and without him this research would have never reached fruition. He has provided countless suggestions and insights over the years while still fostering my own sociological independence and growth. I could not have asked for a better advisor. I also wish to thank Pam Paxton for being a committee member, mentor and friend. My confidence and skill as a researcher have been greatly improved through my work for her and with her. She is a role model for the kind of sociologist I hope to be. I extend my thanks to Maciek Slomczynski for his years of support through my coursework, exams and dissertation. He has constantly challenged me to be the best thinker and researcher I can be. His lessons will stay with me always. I owe a great deal of thanks to the many people who assisted in the data collection and analysis for this project. Students Justine Grubb, Emily Rose, Claire Friedman, Kevin McCance, and Greg Matthews spent countless hours turning thousands of news stories into usable data. Colin Odden shared his time and skill to create an amazing database of information. Drs. Robert Kaufman and Paul von Hippel provided invaluable statistical support. Perhaps most of all, I owe thanks to all of my friends—especially v Donna Bobbitt-Zeher, Lisa Garoutte, Lisa Hickman, Clayton Peoples, Jim Sutton, and Dan Tope—for listening to my ideas, questions and complaints, and providing many of the answers. Each of these people has contributed some heart and soul to this project, and I am eternally grateful. Finally, I thank the National Science Foundation, the Coca-Cola Critical Difference for Women Dissertation Fund, the Mershon Center, the Department of Sociology and The Ohio State University for providing financial support. vi VITA May 8, 1978 ...................................................Born—Fort Worth, TX 1998................................................................B.A. Women’ Studies and Sociology Wichita State University Wichita, KS 1999-2001 ......................................................Graduate Assistant Wichita State University Wichita, KS 2001................................................................M.A. Sociology Wichita State University Wichita, KS 2001-2006 ......................................................Graduate Teaching and Research Assistant The Ohio State University Columbus, OH PUBLICATIONS 1. Green, Jennifer. 2004. “Uncovering Collective Rape: A Comparative Study of Political Sexual Violence.” International Journal of Sociology. 34(1): 97-116. 2. Green, Jennifer. Review of Buck, Pem Davidson. (2001). Worked to the Bone: Race, Class, Power and Privilege in Kentucky. Contemporary Sociology. 32(2): 159-160. FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Sociology vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......................................................................................v VITA..........................................................................................................................vii LIST OF TABLES.....................................................................................................x LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................xii CHAPTERS: 1. Introduction..........................................................................................................1 2. Literature Review.................................................................................................16 3. Theoretical Framework........................................................................................29 Gender Inequality ..........................................................................................30 Militarization .................................................................................................32 Armed Conflict...............................................................................................34 Ethnic Cleavages ...........................................................................................36 Economic Development .................................................................................38 World Culture ................................................................................................40 State Structure................................................................................................42 4. Data and Methods ................................................................................................45 A Definition of Collective Rape .....................................................................46 viii Data Collection..............................................................................................52 Dataset Structure ...........................................................................................65 Collective Rape Variables..............................................................................66 Independent Variables ...................................................................................69 Missing Data..................................................................................................80 5. Descriptive Analysis ............................................................................................87 Stories ............................................................................................................87 Time................................................................................................................104 Regions...........................................................................................................116 Perpetrators ...................................................................................................124 Victims............................................................................................................131 6. Time Series Analysis ...........................................................................................136 Model Specification .......................................................................................136 Gender Inequality ..........................................................................................138 Armed Conflict...............................................................................................140 Militarization