SITTING “ UNDER THE MOUTH” : DECLINE AND REVITALIZATION IN THE SAKHA EPIC TRADITION OLONKHO by ROBIN GAIL HARRIS (Under the Direction of Jean N. Kidula) ABSTRACT The Sakha epic tradition, olonkho , features the longest and most complex epic tales of all the Siberian peoples. In its most traditional form, olonkho is a solo genre comprised of both dramatic narrative poetry and unaccompanied song alternating throughout the extensive, multiple-evening performance of the work. This work explores the current revival of interest in olonkho, examining what led to its decline during the Soviet era as well as the factors currently playing a role in its revitalization. It addresses the transformations of olonkho in the 21 st century and identifies keys for its long-term sustainability. These four areas—attenuation, revitalization, transformation, and sustainability—are the primary research categories. In order to more effectively posit potential future directions for olonkho, I trace olonkho performance practice historically, exploring the ways it interacted with the contextual milieu of each time period, beginning with those times immediately before and during Soviet power. The research questions are organized around the elements of time , place , and event . The event parameter is further divided into three areas of inquiry: the performers , audiences , and content of the olonkho tradition. The literature addressing these themes is drawn, not just from the discipline of ethnomusicology, but also from anthropology, comparative literature, culture studies, musicology, performance theory, post-Soviet and post-colonial studies, area studies, and sociolinguistic models. Data collection in the field largely relied on ethnographic interviews, documented in first person accounts, both in the text and the accompanying DVD. Conclusions from the research indicate that audience reception for olonkho is still weak, however, a strong revitalization effort by the Sakha Republic’s government and its educational institutions is beginning to strengthen audience appreciation for olonkho. While people’s response to “sitting under the mouth” is undeniably different than it was a century ago, if Sakha people will focus on vigorous transmission and innovation during this period of revitalization, it will help to bolster viability of the genre, giving hope that olonkho will survive to be enjoyed by future generations. INDEX WORDS: Epic, Epos, Ethnomusicology, Manas, Masterpiece, Neocolonialism, Olonkho, Oral tradition, P’ansori, Post-Soviet, Revitalization, Russia, Safeguarding, Sakha, Siberia, Sustainability, UNESCO, Yakutia SITTING “ UNDER THE MOUTH” : DECLINE AND REVITALIZATION IN THE SAKHA EPIC TRADITION OLONKHO by ROBIN GAIL HARRIS BMus in Piano Performance, Biola University, 1983 MA in Intercultural Studies, Columbia International University, 2001 MA in Ethnomusicology, Bethel University, 2007 A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ATHENS, GEORGIA 2012 © 2012 Robin Harris All Rights Reserved SITTING “ UNDER THE MOUTH” : DECLINE AND REVITALIZATION IN THE SAKHA EPIC TRADITION OLONKHO by ROBIN GAIL HARRIS Major Professor: Jean N. Kidula Committee: Adrian Childs David Haas Elena Krasnostchekova Susan Thomas Electronic Version Approved: Maureen Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia May 2012 iv DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my family. First, to my beloved husband, Bill, whose support never flagged during the arduous process of coursework, exams, and writing, and whose professional videography skills masterfully captured the interviews of my fieldwork; to my adult children, James and Katherine, who spent a childhood in Russia and still cheer me on (sometimes in Russian); to my siblings and parents-in-law, who supported me emotionally, financially, and spiritually; to my mother, Joyce Persón, who prays for me daily and whose courage in hard times inspires me; and to the memory of my father, Robert W. Persón, who, although he didn’t get to see the final draft, instilled in me the love for music, cross-cultural work, and life-long learning that set me on this road. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A myriad of relationships, both professional and personal, undergird and energize a research project such as this. It is therefore with immense gratitude that I acknowledge the crucial role of my research advisor, Dr. Jean Kidula, whose unerring critical insight, timely responses, and steady support made this project possible. In addition, I would like to thank my committee, Adrian Childs, David Haas, Elena Krasnostchekova, and Susan Thomas, for their guidance and advice. I am also indebted to UGA for the financial support I received through the Dean’s Award and a travel grant from The University of Georgia Research Foundation, ameliorating the high cost of fieldwork in Siberia. To my colleagues and valued friends in the non-profit organizations where I serve—Kevin Calcote, Neil Coulter, Cory Cummins, Frank Fortunato, Brad Keating, James Krabill, Paul Neeley, Michelle Petersen, Brian Schrag, and the faculty and staff at the Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics—thank you for your encouragement, support, and for helping to carry the work load so I could focus on my research. I’m also grateful for the top-quality graphic design provided by my son, James Harris; his deft professionalism greatly enhanced the three diagrams in Chapter Six. I share the credit for this work with many Sakha collaborators and respondents: Irina Aksënova, Anna Andreyeva, Maria Borisova, Valeri and Zoya Burtsev, Ekaterina Chekhorduna, Dora Gerasimova, Dmitri Krivoshapkin, Elena Kugdanova-Egorova, Anastasia Luginova, Boris Mikhailov, Svetlana Mukhoplëva, Alina Nakhodkina, Elena Protodiakonova, Ekaterina Romanova, Radion Savinov, Spiridon Schischigin, Tatiana vi Semënova, Gavril Shelkovnikov, Liubov Shelkovnikova, Anastasia Shishigina, Elizaveta Sidorova, Vera Solovyeva, Maria Stepanova, Valentina Ustrushkova, Pyotr Tikhonov, Sergei Vasiliev, Dekabrina Vinokurova, Agafia Zakharova, and Yuri Zhegusov. Their hospitality, encouragement, openness, willingness to recount memories and opinions, and generous sharing of resources and research summaries has encouraged me and supported my research at every step. This project stands on their shoulders. In that regard, I would like to especially thank Valeri and Maria Kononova, who provided invaluable logistical help and insight during my two fieldwork trips to villages around Yakutia, and olonkhosuts Pyotr Reshetnikov and Nikolai Alekseyev, who not only shared their stories and performed for me, but who hosted me during my stay in their respective villages. My collaborators in Yakutsk include Sue Hauge, a dear friend who has lived longer in Yakutia than any other American I know. She hosted us multiple times and provided a number of key Sakha resources that have significantly impacted this research. Other non-Sakha friends in Yakutsk, Valentin and Lyubov Nikonenko, as well as Michał and Agnieszka Domagała, also provided warm hospitality and encouragement. I owe an enormous debt to Anna Larionova, a Sakha scholar and friend who facilitated and hosted a highly productive trip to Yakutia in December of 2011. The connections she provided to scholars at the Institute for Humanitarian Research (IGI) and other institutions proved to be absolutely crucial to this research. And finally, to my primary Russian-Sakha mentor and dear friend, Eduard Alekseyev, and to his wonderful wife, Zoya, I owe an inestimable debt for wise advice, practical help, warm hospitality, inspiration, and encouragement. You are a gift to us all. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................v NOTES ON TRANSLITERATION FROM RUSSIAN AND SAKHA ........................... xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................... xii LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... xiii CHAPTER 1 PROSPECTUS ...................................................................................................1 Introduction ..................................................................................................1 Objectives for research ................................................................................3 Research questions .......................................................................................4 Need for study ..............................................................................................6 Literature review ..........................................................................................7 Theoretical orientations .............................................................................21 Research methodology ...............................................................................25 Chapter organization ..................................................................................28 2 OLONKHO: A MULTI-GENERIC EPIC TRADITION ................................31 Features of olonkho performance ..............................................................34 Epic performers ..........................................................................................34 Oral formulaic theory and improvisation in olonkho ................................36 Emergent character