PUBLISHER’S NOTE Salem Press’s Earth Science: Earth’s Weather, Water, guide readers to areas of particular interest. The and Atmosphere provides a two-volume introduction to background and history of each subject are provided the major topics of study in climate, bodies of water, and detail important contextual information on the and atmosphere. These volumes provide a compre- topic. An annotated Bibliography closes each essay and hensive revision and update to an earlier edition with refers the reader to external sources for further study the same title, which was published by Salem Press in that are of use to both students and nonspecialists. 2001. Finally, a list of Cross-References directs the reader to The essays in this collection cover a wide range of other subject-related essays within the set. At the end subject areas, including the components of the atmo- of every volume, several appendices are designed sphere, with important developments in the study of to assist in the retrieval of information, including greenhouse effects and weather patterns, the study of a Glossary that defines key terms contained in each waters within and on the surface of the earth, and the set, and tables such as Atmospheric Pressure, Oil Spills impact of sedimentology in the formation of Earth Timeline, Bodies of Water Data Sheet, and Major Weather surfaces. The coeditors of the volume have reviewed Events. each article for scientific authority and have ensured Salem Press’s Earth’s Weather, Water, and Atmosphere each article’s currency. is part of a series of Earth science books that includes Designed for high school and college students and Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Earth’s Surface and their teachers, these volumes provide hundreds of History, and Earth’s Materials and Resources. expertly written essays supplemented by illustrations, Many hands went into the creation of these vol- charts, and useful reference materials, resulting in umes. Special mention must be made of its coeditors, a comprehensive overview of each topic. Librarians Margaret Boorstein, Ph.D., and Richard Renneboog, and general readers alike will also turn to this refer- M.Sc., who played a principal role in shaping the ref- ence work for both foundational information and erence work and its contents. Thanks are also due to current developments. the many academicians and professionals who com- Each essay topic begins with helpful reference in- municated their expert understanding of Earth sci- formation, including a summary statement that ex- ence to the general reader; a list of these individuals plains its significance in the study of the earth and and their affiliations appears at the beginning of its processes. Principal Terms define key elements or the volume. The contributions of all are gratefully concepts related to the subject, and the text is then acknowledged. organized following informative subheadings that vii ES_Weather_Water_Atmosphere 1.indb 7 10/3/2012 2:31:30 PM INTRODUCTION The planet Earth is a complex set of living and non- Those articles devoted to hydrology focus on the living systems connected by the cycling of matter and study of waters that move within the earth’s crust flows of energy. The solid earth, or the lithosphere; and on its surface. The movements of groundwater the gaseous layer surrounding the solid earth, or the and the properties of aquifers—layers of rocks or atmosphere; and the waters of the earth, or the hydro- sediment in which water is stored and flows—are dis- sphere, are all connected with one another and with cussed, along with consequences of their depletion the biosphere, or living things. Presented in alphabet- and deterioration. Because freshwater is vital not ical order, the articles in Earth Science: Earth’s Weather, only to human survival, but also to functioning eco- Water, and Atmosphere discuss and explain important nomic systems, several articles discuss surface water, components of these four realms, with a particular wells, water tables, and water quality. The technolo- emphasis on the influences that people, industry, and gies and environmental impact of desalination, dams commerce around the globe have on Earth’s systems. and flood control, and floods also are important to The evolution of the atmosphere is explained, societies around the world. Waterfalls, frequently along with its present structure and internal move- spectacular in their beauty and haunting in their ments. The relationship between the earth and sun, long-term erosion, can be and are often harnessed including revolution and rotation, are discussed, as to produce electricity. Yet, erecting power lines to well as how the changing orientation of the earth’s transport electricity from remote waterfall locations axis with respect to the sun over the course of a year involves all sorts of economic, political, and environ- creates seasons. An article on the greenhouse effect mental choices. Watersheds, or areas drained by a describes its necessity to life on Earth. Other arti- stream, need to be understood and monitored closely cles provide insight into how human activities have because so many competing uses depend on the wa- interfered with natural balances, leading to global ters that flow within them. Neither freshwater nor the warming, climate change, and ozone depletion. Such intricacies of its movements and the consequences of distinctions are important to acknowledge so that its contamination are taken for granted today. individuals, through their formal governments, eco- Oceans cover approximately two-thirds of the sur- nomic activities, and informal alliances, can make face of the earth. It is said that less is known about the decisions about adaptation, mediation, or inaction. ocean floor than is known about space. Federal govern- A number of articles examine motions of matter ment agencies, including the National Aeronautics and transfers of energy within the atmosphere. The and Space Administration (NASA) and the National dramatic consequences of energy transfer are dis- Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), cussed in the articles about hurricanes, tornadoes, have been expanding that awareness, especially in lightning and thunder, and monsoons. El Niño/ the last decade. Articles in this volume explain how Southern Oscillation (ENSO) has been shown, heat is transported through wind-driven surface cur- through decades of gathering detailed weather sta- rents and thermal and salinity-driven deep ocean tistics combined with modern measurement tech- currents. The interactions of water and the tectonics nologies, to have a worldwide impact on climate and of the ocean floor are discussed in articles about tur- weather. Essays about more mundane features of bidity currents, seamounts, and hydrothermal vents. the atmosphere, such as clouds, winds, and climate The danger of tsunamis to human life has always ex- basics, provide an understanding of their proper- isted. The article about the tsunamis of December ties and importance to the atmospheric system. The 26, 2004, and March 11, 2011, describes the unimag- government of the United States devotes human inably wide-ranging damage that occurred, as well as and fiscal resources to advance scientific research as the resulting possible courses of action to mitigate ca- well as improve weather forecasting. Anyone in the sualties and damage in the future. Current ocean-at- United States with access to the Internet can see sat- mospheric interactions are important influences on ellite imagery; interpret and analyze local, regional, climate today. From the perspective of geologic eons, and national forecasts; and read discussions of the oceans serve as long- and short-term storehouses of models that contributed to their creation. carbon and other elements that are part of nutrient ix ES_Weather_Water_Atmosphere 1.indb 9 10/3/2012 2:31:30 PM Introduction Earth’s Weather, Water, and Atmosphere cycles vital to life on Earth. With recent human in- consequences of misguided interference by people. terference in these natural processes have come un- The Great Lakes, which hold approximately 20 per- foreseen effects on current atmospheric and oceanic cent of the freshwater in the world, are important processes. As global warming intensifies, sea level will for fishing, recreation, and freshwater supply. They be of greater concern not only to those populations have also facilitated the economic growth of both the that have to be evacuated and the areas to which they United States and Canada, with four of the five lakes move, but to those who are dependent on the natural sharing a border that features both countries’ manu- resources lost to rising seas. facturing belts and agricultural core. Contamination More extensive discussions of specific oceans and of the waters by excessive fertilizer and pesticide use, seas provide descriptions of their origins and current combined with industrial runoff, contributed to sig- geology and geography. The story of the Aral Sea in nificant declines and contamination of the commer- the former Soviet Union serves as a morality tale. cial and recreational fisheries. Cooperation by both Once the fourth largest body of freshwater in the countries and the neighboring states and provinces world, it decreased greatly in size and deteriorated have alleviated these problems, but fish contamina- into a body of water with a higher saline concentra- tion remains. tion than the oceans. In contrast, Hudson Bay has Finally, sedimentology, including the influence been left relatively untouched, but that situation may of running and standing water on sediments and re- change as demand for mineral resources and water sulting landforms, is presented. Depositional systems power increases. The Atlantic and Indian Oceans, such as alluvial systems and deltas create valuable along with their climate influences and economic farmland but, in turn, are related to streams or rivers importance, have fascinating geologic features and overflowing their banks. Evaporites and deep-sea marine ecologies. The Arctic Ocean illustrates the se- sedimentation both result in valuable resources for verity of the intensification of the greenhouse effect.