Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Dissertations Graduate College 6-2016 The Rwandan Diaspora in Canada and the United States: Reconciliation and Justice Jennifer J. Marson Western Michigan University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations Part of the Race and Ethnicity Commons, Regional Sociology Commons, and the Sociology of Culture Commons Recommended Citation Marson, Jennifer J., "The Rwandan Diaspora in Canada and the United States: Reconciliation and Justice" (2016). Dissertations. 1607. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/1607 This Dissertation-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. THE RWANDAN DIASPORA IN CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES: RECONCILIATION AND JUSTICE by Jennifer J. Marson A dissertation submitted to the Graduate College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Sociology Western Michigan University June 2016 Doctoral Committee: Angela Moe, Ph.D., Chair David Hartmann, Ph.D. Ronald Kramer, Ph.D. Harry Mika, Ph.D. THE RWANDAN DIASPORA IN CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES: RECONCILIATION AND JUSTICE Jennifer J. Marson, Ph.D. Western Michigan University, 2016 This dissertation analyzed the attempts at achieving justice and reconciliation among the Rwandan diaspora located in Canada and the United States. Following the 1994 Rwandan genocide, many Rwandans fled and a modest diaspora found a home in various locations throughout Canada and the United States. The diaspora, located thousands of miles from the institutional mechanism of justice and reconciliation in Rwanda, are subject to many of the same concerns regarding justice and reconciliation as those who remain in Rwanda. This research focused primarily on how this specific diaspora attempted to achieve justice and reconciliation, if institutional mechanisms (gacaca) in Rwanda have a residual effect on the diaspora, and if the diaspora has created any diaspora-specific mechanism to facilitate justice and reconciliation among one another. This research also addressed current political concerns in Rwanda and how these concerns affected the diaspora. Telephone and face-to-face interviews were conducted with eight members of the Rwandan diaspora located in a variety of locations in the United States and Canada between May 2015 and March 2016. As a supplement to diaspora participant interviews, telephone interviews with four experts on the Rwandan genocide were conducted in February and March 2016. Interviews with diaspora participants revealed that there exists a culture of silence among them, largely as a result of the authoritarian leadership of Rwandan President, Paul Kagame. Diaspora members believed that it was dangerous to speak negatively about Kagame (including political topics such as justice and reconciliation) and that there are personal and legal consequences both for those in Rwanda and among the diaspora who do so. More specifically, diaspora participants suggested that there is a belief that they may be monitored by the Rwandan government. Diaspora participant interviews revealed that justice among the diaspora is inherently connected with justice in Rwanda. If justice has not been served in Rwanda, justice has not been served for the diaspora. Diaspora participants do not feel that justice has been achieved in Rwanda or among the diaspora. Reconciliation among the diaspora, while tied to attempts at reconciliation in Rwanda, may be its own construct. Interviews demarcated “thin” reconciliation (peaceful coexistence among different ethnicities) and “thick” reconciliation (creation of meaningful relationships among different ethnicities) (Pozen, Neugebauer, & Ntaganira, 2014). Diaspora participant interviews reflected that “thin” reconciliation exists among the diaspora, but that “thick” reconciliation is a rare occurrence. Additionally, diaspora interviews suggested that “thick” reconciliation occurs less frequently among the diaspora than in Rwanda because it is not forced. However, when “thick” reconciliation does occur among the diaspora, it is authentic, precisely because it is not forced. Diaspora members did not heavily discuss the effects of gacaca courts on the diaspora, largely because they did not feel that it addressed justice and reconciliation in Rwanda. Diaspora participants did not report any diaspora specific mechanism regarding attempts at justice and reconciliation. Expert participant interviews supported the claims of diaspora participants regarding the culture of silence both within Rwanda and among the diaspora, and confirmed diaspora participants statements regarding justice and reconciliation. © 2016 Jennifer J. Marson So you now see that the truth in our country is hidden, and you need to look not for what is there, but for what they hide. You cannot pay attention to what they show you, but need to listen to those who are kept quiet. You need to look differently in a dictatorship, you need to think about how to listen to people who live in fear. — Excerpt from Bad News, Anjan Sundaram ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To my family and friends, thank you for your patience and understanding throughout this process. I’m sure I was not always easy or fun to be around. To Victoria, Malcolm, and Joshua, thank you for always reminding me of what I was capable of. There is no way I would have believed I could do it without you. You are where my heart starts. Jessie Sullivan and Olivia McLaughlin, you both talked me off the ledge more times than I can count. Sully, you’ve been my sounding board for the past 4 years. I am forever grateful for your support and friendship. Liv, thank you for all your work on this project, specifically your help with transcription. You are brilliant. Now start believing it. To Dr. Ronald Kramer and Dr. David Hartmann, thank you for your invaluable instruction and assistance. You both challenged me, theoretically and methodologically. Although, your baseball loyalties concern me. The American League shall always be owned by the Tigers. To Dr. Harry Mika, who encouraged me all those years ago to research exactly what I wanted. I remember barreling into your office and telling you I wanted to go to Rwanda. You didn’t bat an eye. Thank you for seeing more in me than I saw in myself. To Dr. Angela Moe, dissertation chair extraordinaire, my Yoda. You have gone above and beyond what anyone could ever ask for in a dissertation chair and a mentor. I ii Acknowledgments—Continued am eternally grateful for your support and advice during this process. You’ve shown me that it is possible, all of it. To Roosevelt, my furry companion who has spent the past four years tucked close to my feet. You are the joy of my life. Last, and most importantly, Dale. At the end of every day, you often got what was left of me. Not once did you complain, but provided constant encouragement and support. I know how lucky I am. You are my superman. Jennifer J. Marson iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................. ii CHAPTER I. RESEARCH INTERESTS AND THE RWANDAN GENOCIDE .................... 1 Rwandan History ......................................................................................... 5 The 1994 Rwandan Genocide ...................................................................... 10 Role of the International Community .................................................... 11 II. NOTIONS OF JUSTICE IN AND OUTSIDE OF RWANDA .......................... 21 Post-Genocide Justice .................................................................................. 21 Conceptual Definitions ................................................................................ 22 Rwandan Gacaca .......................................................................................... 26 Problems with Gacaca............................................................................ 29 Post-Genocidal Notions of Ethnicity: Connections Between the Diaspora and Home Country ....................................................................... 33 Political Landscape and the Culture of Silence ........................................... 39 In Rwanda .............................................................................................. 39 Among the Diaspora .............................................................................. 46 Engaging the Diaspora ........................................................................... 49 The Rwandan Diaspora in the United States and Canada ............................ 51 Rwandan Diaspora in Canada ...................................................................... 52 Ottawa .................................................................................................... 53 Montreal ................................................................................................. 54 Toronto ................................................................................................... 55 iv Table of Contents—Continued CHAPTER Edmonton ............................................................................................... 56 Rwanda Diaspora in the United States......................................................... 57 Research on Rwandan Diaspora in the West ..............................................