THE USE OF DISCOURSE MARKERS BY SYRIAN ARABIC LEARNERS OF ENGLISH A thesis submitted to The University of Manchester for the degree of Ph.D. in the Faculty of Humanities 2008 HEVEEN ALI KURDI SCHOOL OF LANGUAGES, LINGUISTICS AND CULTURES Table of contents Table of contents ...................................................................................................... 2 List of abbreviation .................................................................................................. 5 Glossary of the Arabic Transcription Symbols ........................................................ 6 The Arabic vowels ................................................................................................... 7 Transcription Conventions ....................................................................................... 8 Abstract .................................................................................................................. 10 Declaration ............................................................................................................. 11 Copyright statement ............................................................................................... 12 Dedication ............................................................................................................. 13 Acknoweledgments ............................................................................................... 14 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 16 2. Discourse markers in the literature ................................................................. 20 2.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 20 2.1 The beginning of discourse markers research ................................................. 21 2.2 Terminology ................................................................................................... 23 2.3 Characteristics of Discourse Markers ............................................................. 25 2.3.1 Connectivity .................................................................................................. 26 2.3.2 Syntactically optional ................................................................................... 27 2.3.3 Little semantic meaning ................................................................................ 27 2.3.4 Other characteristics ..................................................................................... 28 2.4 Discourse markers in the coherence framework .............................................. 29 2.4.1 Schiffrin ........................................................................................................ 30 2.4.2 Redeker ......................................................................................................... 35 2.5 Discourse markers from the Relevance Theory perspective ........................ 39 2.5.1 Blakemore ..................................................................................................... 40 2.6 Communicative approach to the study of discourse markers .......................... 41 2.6.1 Fraser ........................................................................................................... 41 2.6.2 Schourup ....................................................................................................... 43 2.7 Discourse markers in bilingual discourse and foreign language discourse .. 45 2.7.1 Discourse markers in bilingual conversation ................................................ 46 2.7.2 The Discourse markers in foreign language discourse ................................. 49 3. Data collection methodology and the sociolinguistic context ........................ 53 3.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 53 3.1 The sociolinguistic situation in Syria ............................................................. 53 3.2 Foreign languages in Syria ............................................................................ 58 3.2.1 English language in Syria ............................................................................. 59 3.3 Date collection method ................................................................................. 61 3.3.1 The interviews .............................................................................................. 64 3.3.1.1 The English interviews .............................................................................. 66 3.3.1.2 The Arabic interview ................................................................................ 67 3.3.2 The questions ............................................................................................... 67 3.3.3 The informants ............................................................................................. 69 2 3.4 Interviews’ problems ....................................................................................... 71 3.5 Data transcription ............................................................................................ 73 3.6 Conclusions .................................................................................................... 74 4 Discourse markers in Syrian Arabic .................................................................. 76 4.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 76 4.1 Fa in the literature .......................................................................................... 76 4.2 The functions of fa in the present study .......................................................... 78 4.2.1 Fa marking a result ....................................................................................... 78 4.2.2 Sequential fa ................................................................................................. 83 4.2.3 Transitional fa ............................................................................................... 85 4.2.4 Fa as a summary marker .............................................................................. 89 4.3 Yaʕn in the literature ................................................................................ 91 4.3 Yaʕnī in the present study ............................................................................ 95 4.4 The functions of yaʕn in the present study ................................................ 96 4.4.1 Yaʕn as a floor holding device ................................................................ 96 4.4.2 Yaʕn marking expanding units in discourse .......................................... 102 4.4.3 Moving from the general to the specific ..................................................... 103 4.4.4 Replacement repair ..................................................................................... 106 4.5 ʕrəftī, btaʕrfī, and ʕrəftī kīf in the literature .................................................. 107 4.6 The functions of ʕrəftī, btaʕrfī, and ʕrəftī kīf in Syrian Arabic .................. 112 4.6.1 ʕrəftī …………………………………………………………………….112 4.6.2 btaʕrfī .......................................................................................................... 115 4.6.3 ʕrəftī kīf ....................................................................................................... 118 4.7 Conclusions .................................................................................................. 120 5 So in the discourse of Syrian Arabic English learners ……………………121 5.0 Introduction .................................................................................................... 121 5.1 So in the literature .......................................................................................... 122 5.2 Functions of so in the current study ............................................................... 132 5.2.1 Marker of a result/consequence ................................................................. 132 5.2.2 Marker of inferences ................................................................................... 137 5.2.3 Marker of restating a main idea/ opinion/summarizing .............................. 139 5.2.4 So as a completed idea /transition relevance place marker ........................ 144 5.2.5 Transitional so ............................................................................................ 148 5.3 So as a non-discourse marker ......................................................................... 158 5.4 Discussion and Concluding remarks ............................................................. 159 6 You know in the discourse of Syrian Arabic English learners ......................... 162 6.0 Introduction .................................................................................................... 162 6.1 You know in the literature .............................................................................. 162 6.2 Functions of you know in the present data ..................................................... 175 6.2.1 Marker of certainty ..................................................................................... 175 6.2.2 Reminding the hearer of information presented earlier .............................. 179 6.2.3 You know as marker of intimacy ................................................................. 182 6.2.4 Topic change ..............................................................................................