Contents Introduction (O. Kinne) ............................... VII Gene E. Likens: Recipient of the Ecology Institute Prize 1988 in Limnetic Ecology. A Laudatio (W. D. Williams) ................ XIX Preface (G. E. Likens) ...............................XXIII I THE INCLUSIVE NATURE OF ECOLOGY .................. 1 Defining Ecology .............................. 3 An Ecosystem Approach .......................... 9 From Organisms to Ecosystems ....................... 11 The Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study ................... 15 Concluding Remarks ............................. 16 II STYLE AND METHOD IN ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY ........... 17 II (1) Approaches to the Study of Ecosystem Ecology .............. 19 An Empirical or Natural History Approach ............... 19 A Balance or Budgetary Approach .................... 20 An Experimental Approach ........................ 21 A Comparative Approach ......................... 22 A Modeling or Computer Simulation Approach ............. 23 Concluding Remarks ........................... 24 II (2) Sustained Ecological Research ....................... 27 Examples from Ecosystem Science .................... 29 The Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study ................ 29 Water ................................ 30 Lead ................................. 38 Sulfur ................................ 41 Base cations ............................ 45 Nitrogen .............................. 50 Animal populations in ecosystems .................. 54 Lake ecosystems ............................ 55 Salt pollution ............................ 55 Eutrophication ........................... 57 Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide ....................... 60 Alternatives to Direct SER ........................ 62 Concluding Remarks ........................... 62 VI II (3) Air-Land-Water Linkages and Interactions ................. 63 Acid Rain ................................. 64 Toxic Metals ............................... 68 Mercury ................................ 68 Lead .................................. 69 Hydrologic Linkages ........................... 70 Stream ecosystems ........................... 71 Riparian zone linkages ......................... 81 Organic debris dams .......................... 84 Lake ecosystems ............................ 86 Concluding Remarks ........................... 88 III ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY AND SOCIETY ................. 89 II (1) The Water Crisis ............................... 91 General Aspects .............................. 91 The Global Water Problem ........................ 92 The United States Water Problem .................... 94 Pollution and Management Concerns .................. 95 Nitrate contamination of aquatic resources .............. 97 Animal wastes ........................... 100 Atmospheric deposition ...................... 101 Fertilizers .............................. 101 Deforestation ............................ 103 Industrial wastes .......................... 103 Concluding Remarks ........................... 103 II (2) Environmental Issues, Scientific Communication and Ethics ....... 105 The Premise ................................ 109 A Pattern ................................. 110 Scientific Communication and the News Media ............. 117 Concluding Remarks ........................... 123 II (3) Ecology, Ecosystems and Environmentalism ............... 127 "Big" Science – The National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program . 127 Human-Accelerated Environmental Change ............... 136 Ecosystem Science and the Future .................... 137 Environmentalism ............................ 138 Leap-Frogging Degradation ....................... 140 Concluding Remarks ........................... 142 IV EPILOGUE .................................. 143 Acknowledgements ................................. 145 References ..................................... 147 Introduction O. Kinne Ecology Institute, Nordbünte 23, W-2124 Oldendorf/Luhe, Germany In this introduction I outline the scope of the publication series “Excellence in Ecology”, and the structure and function of its publisher, the Ecology Institute (ECI). I also give the names of the ECI Prize Laureates, the respective quotations of the juries and the titles of their books as well as the names and jury quotations of the IRPE Prize (p. IX) Winners. I further list the names of the jury members who selected Gene E. Likens as our 1988 Laureate, and the names of the present scientific and technical ECI staff. Finally, I attempt to summarize the contents of this book and to highlight its essential messages. Excellence in Ecology Although still in its initial phase of existence, the publication series“Excel- lence in Ecology” (EE) has already received world-wide attention and applause. EE provides a platform for leading research ecologists – the recip- ients of the Ecology Institute Prize – to present overviews over their fields of professional competence, and to share with a large international readership their views on current ecological issues, as well as their insights into the eco- logical realities that form the framework for human existence. Published by the Ecology Institute (ECI) in Oldendorf/Luhe (Germany), EE books address fellow scientists, teachers and students, as well as man- agers, politicians and other decision makers who must translate scientific ecological information into practicable rules and laws for the benefit of nature and for securing the very basis for the development and survival of modern human societies. In this way, EE books support and elaborate on ECI’s aims (see below). EE books are available worldwide at cost price.* They may also be donated to scientific libraries in Third-World countries. * Address book orders to Ecology Institute, W-2124 Oldendorf/Luhe, Germany (Tel. 04132/7127; Fax 04132/8883). For book authors, titles and prices consult pp. X–XII VIII INTRODUCTION The Ecology Institute The international Ecology Institute (ECI), located some 55 km south of Hamburg (Germany) in the small village of Oldendorf/Luhe, was founded in 1984. It is funded by Inter-Research, the publisher of the three inter- national scientific journals “Marine Ecology Progress Series”, “Diseases of Aquatic Organisms” and “Climate Research”. The ECI is a non-profit- making organisation. At present, the institute has a scientific staff of 43 ecologists (see below) – all of outstanding professional reputation. Neither the director nor any of the scientific staff members receive remuneration. Scientific ECI members are recruited world-wide among leading ecolo- gists. Nominations for ECI membership (to be addressed to ECI’s director) are welcome. It now has become a tradition that ECI Prize winners are in- vited to join the institute’s staff. This provides for “fresh blood”, assures a high level of expertise and, in regard to selecting Laureates, strengthens im- partiality (prize winners are excluded from future nominations). The ECI strives to (1) further the exchange of information between marine, terrestrial and limnetic ecologists, and promote advancement in environmental research; (2) compensate for the lack of balance between an- alyzing and synthesizing research efforts and thus help to provide more feedback and critical overview for biological sciences; (3) draw the atten- tion of scientists, administrators, politicians and the general public to important issues resulting from ecological research; (4) assist in finding a long-term compromise between the increasingly destructive potential of modern industrial societies and the need for defining and applying mea- sures to protect nature, commensurate with achieving and sustaining the highest possible living standard for human societies. ECI’s aims and activ- ities have been outlined more fully in the introduction to Book 1. At present, the ECI’s major means of approaching these aims are the two international prizes (ECI Prize, IRPE Prize; see below) conferred annually by the institute. While there are several international prizes offered now in ecology, the ECI Prize is unique for two reasons: (1) it was established and is financed by research ecologists; (2) the prize gives and takes: it both honors the recipient and provides a stipend, and it expects the Laureate to serve science by authoring an EE book taking into account ECI’s aims. The ECI also supports, via the Otto Kinne Foundation (OKF)*, prom- ising young environmental scientists in eastern European countries – especially in the fields of ecology, diseases of animals, plants and micro- organisms, and climate research. The OKF aids postgraduates – without ECOLOGY INSTITUTE IX distinction of race, religion, nationality or sex – by providing financial assistance for professional travel and/or scientific equipment. For details write to the ECI. In an annually rotating pattern, ECI Juries select marine, terrestrial or limnetic ecologists to receive the Ecology Institute Prize, which carries a stipend of US $ 5000, and the IRPE Prize (International Recognition of Pro- fessional Excellence), which carries a stipend of US $ 750. ECI Juries also select postgraduates to receive OKF Fellowships. While the ECI Prize honors a research ecologist distinguished by sus- tained excellent achievements, the IRPE Prize honors a young (not more than 40 years of age) research ecologist who has conducted and published uniquely independent, original and/or challenging research representing an important scientific breakthrough, and/or who must work under particularly difficult conditions. Nominations for ECI and IRPE Prizes (accompanied