Η-(Α. ν ά ! η á . b - ¿Z ĎDX) . Ą лМ Ιγ fi í. Sid} ií S -fer" б л ґИ Ж іШ ^ ¡'ZJÍ'b¿7y> A'S. 6"Нб€- . hJČMJ'įūrte-i THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS FOR PRACTICE Ш Сд\ьіЩ,Уі&·ЦімѵСЬЫТ γ P v - t 5 ś * titative methods because we cannot identify independent and dependent variables. Therefore, some simply offer perspectives about how practice should proceed. Generally, in community practice we utilize practice models 3 Theoretical Frameworks to link theories about how society functions to our intervention plans. Mod­ els of community practice are described in detail in chapter 4. for Practice The differences among theories, models, and perspectives can be de­ scribed in the following manner: Perspective: An approach to practice that involves basic value as­ sumptions about best practices. Perspectives offer guid­ ance about the best way to intervene and the role of the social worker in the intervention process. Perspectives do not offer detailed prescriptions about outcomes as­ sociated with specific practice activities. Often the ideas or constructs associated with the perspective are not easily measurable. Consequently, little research has been conducted to verify whether the practice approach is effective. Theories: Assumptions about cause-and-effect relationships that through empirical testing have been established as valid. In community organization, we use theories to under­ stand how communities function, how residents adapt to change, how to influence government policy deci­ sions, and how people can be organized to take power. S In this chapter, theoretical assumptions associated with The theories that guide our work determine what mod­ com m unity practice in social work are described. Practice perspectives, els of practice we will use to plan social change which provide guidance about how interventions should be carried out, interventions. are also presented. Often our practice literature is derived from psychol- Models: Constructs used to understand or visualize patterns of ogy, political science, and sociolog}7. However, some have argued that so­ relationships among concepts, individuals, groups, and cial work is not a profession because it does not possess a unique theory organizations. Theoretical models are used to illustrate base that defines its primary purpose (Reeser & Epstein, 1990; Wakefield, cause-and-effect relationships between variables (such 1996b). as die relationship between a particular social work in­ This chapter discusses two primary practice perspectives, empowerment tervention and its anticipated outcome). Models are and strengths approaches. A number of theories used to frame community typically used to guide decision making or to under­ organization practice are described m detail: systems, ecological, power- stand how decisions are made (Flynn, 1992). dependency, conflict, social movement, and social constructionism. The au­ Practice models: Detailed frameworks for understanding social problems thor argues that these theories in themselves are not sufficient to guide and developing responses to those problems. In com­ practice. Models of practice that link theories to specific types of interven­ munity practice, our model of choice has a number of tion approaches are described in chapter 4. components: (1) a theoretical framework for under­ standing social change, (2) an intervention approach, Perspectives, Theories, and Models: What Is the Difference? and (3) probable outcomes associated with using this approach. Models determine the strategies and tactics Some of the theories that guide social work practice are not empirically used to address the problem and the individuals and testable; specific cause-and-effect relationships cannot be tested using quan- groups involved in problem solving. 45 CONCEPTS AND THEORIES FOR PRACTICE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS FOR PRACTICE ■ Practice Perspectives: Empowerment and 1. The validation of the experiences that shape the lives and values of Strengths-Based Approaches flie constituent group 2. An examination of the self-perceptions of constituency group mem­ Two of the primar)7 perspectives associated -with community practice are the bers in terms of their ability to gain mastery over the environment empowerment and strengths perspectives. These approaches provide us 3. A critical analysis of the impact of the sociopolitical environment on with a generic description ofhow we should interact with constituents, rec­ the lives of constituency group members ognizing their strengths and abilities and valuing their right to make deci­ 4. Increased knowledge and skills for critical thinking and action sions that affect their lives. The value assumptions associated with each of S.. Action taken for political as well as personal change (p. 20) these approaches are easily incorporated into theoretical frameworks and practice models associated with community work. Both perspectives focus The implication of this model for community organization practice is on the importance of client or constituent self-determination as specified in that the organizer is to take great pains to establish decision-making pro­ the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) code of ethics. cesses and structures that support and encourage constituent involvement in problem identification, community assessment, goal setting, implemen­ The Empowerment Perspective tation of strategies, and evaluation (Zachary, 2000). However, as noted in As noted in chapters 1 and 2, empowerment produces powerful effects. The chapter 2, the decision-making process takes place in a context of equal inclusion of disadvantaged members of society in organization or political exchange or dialogue between constituents and the organizer. decision making can alleviate the harmful psychological effects of social inequality by increasing the power of individuals to change those environ­ The Strengths Perspective mental conditions responsible for their problems. From this perspective, social problems are viewed as originating from the inequitable distribution The strengths perspective assumes that residents of low-income and other of resources and decision-making authority (Freire, 1970; Parsons, Gutier­ marginalized groups have skills, resources, and knowledge that they can rez, & Cox, 1998). utilize to transform their lives (Lum, 1996; Saleebey, 1997). The purpose Empowerment also refers to the process through which people maintain of the strengths perspective is to counteract traditional approaches to social control over their own lives and communities (Solomon, 1976; Staples, work practice that emphasize personal deficits and consequently result in 1990). Empowerment decreases feelings of aliénation from the dominant the victimization of people in need. culture, helps individuals develop the capacity for collective action, and leads Drawing from Freire’s work (1970), the strengths perspective assumes to the development of a sense of community or responsibility for and ability that the person who receives the service also is the best “expert” about his to resolve local problems (Simon, 1990). To be empowered, members of or her own life. The strengths perspective emphasizes mutuality in all help­ oppressed groups must be able to recognize the degree to which social struc­ ing relationships, including one-on-one relationships between clients and tures limit life opportunities (Freire, 1970). social workers. This approach implies that the individual’s culture is an asset Empowerment can be defined along three dimensions. An individual is that should be used in the change process. empowered when his or her self-esteem or self-efficacy is increased. At the This perspective can be incorporated into community practice in several intrapersonal level, empowerment comes through the construction of ways. Saleebey (1997) describes community practice from the strengths per­ knowledge and analysis of social problems acquired through shared expe­ spective as oriented toward developing the capacities of individuals to rience. At the community level, empowerment occurs through the devel­ change their own lives as well as the quality of community life. It focuses opment of service resources and social change strategies, which in turn help on “resilience”—the idea that people who have been marginalized and op­ individuals gain mastery over the environment (Labonte, 1990). Involve­ pressed by society can persevere over hardships. Saleebey argues that the ment in community-based social change efforts is thought to provide op­ best way to do this is through forming social bonds with other individuals portunities to empower low-income people and members of other op­ and community associations: pressed groups along all three of these dimensions. According to Parsons et al. (1998), empowerment practice originates in Community development involves helping unleash the power, vision, the dialogue conducted among service professionals and constituents in­ capacities, and talents within a (self-defined) community so that the volved in the organizing effort. It has the following primary components: community can strengthen its internal relationships and move closer 47 В CONCEPTS AND THEORIES FOR PRACTICE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS FOR PRACTICE № toward performing the important fonctions of solidarity and support, Systems Theory succor and identification and instructing and socializing, (p. 202) In social work, we tend to use systems theory to examine small systems such as families or larger organizational systems. However, systems theory also In community