Chapter I Geo-Political Features of Adil Shahi Sultanate Bijapur, a district in the present Karnataka state had been a Subah in the Mughal Empire after 1686, a capital city of Adil Shahi sultanate, a tarf of Bahamani kingdom during medieval Indian history. “Bijapur stands on the site of an old Hindoo town, called Bichkhanhalli, and five other villages. There are still to be found some inscriptions from the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and some Hindoo columns of victory, from which the name of the city is derived- Vijaya-pur, or City of Victory.”10 The Adil Shahi dynasty of Bijapur had been the most important rulers over Bijapur plateau i.e. western Deccan plateau. Adil Shahi Sultans owed many things to their predecessor i.e. the Bahamani Kingdom. The Bahamanis had ruled over the Deccan for the period of 200 years. The ‘Deccan’ literally means the southern and peninsular part of the great landmass of India. The Imperial Gazetteer of India defines the Deccan, and says that it “includes in its widest sense the whole of peninsular south India lying south of the Vindhya mountains and the Narmada river which separate it from the north.”11 To understand the trade and commerce of Adil Shahi Sultanate it is necessary to study physiographic aspects and soils pattern of the Deccan in general and socio-economic aspect and revenue administration of the Adil Shahi Sultanate in particular. An attempt has been made here to find out the correlations of physiographic and soil patterns with the establishment of various strategic and administrative units and important trade centers. 10 J. D. B., Gribble, History of the Deccan, London, Luzac & Co., 1896; reprinted, New Delhi, Rupa & Co., 2009, p.140. 11 The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol XI, Coondapoor to Edwardesabad, Oxford, Published under Secretary of State for India in Council, 1908, p. 205. 20 1. Physiographic Aspects It is important to know the physiographic aspects of the Deccan, to understand the particular space of the present study. “The peninsular region, i.e. Deccan has five distinct physiographic divisions; the Western Ghats or the Sahyadri range with the coastal strip, the northern Deccan plateau, the southern Deccan plateau, the eastern plateau and the Eastern Ghats with the eastern coast region.”12 1.1 The Sahyadris (Western Ghats) The Sahyadris, forming the western edge of the Deccan tableland, commence in Khandesh (Maharashtra) south of the Tapti valley and runs southward close and parallel to the West Coast for 1,600 km up to Kanya Kumari. Up to a little north of Goa, they are composed of lava and have a typical Deccan Trap relief with a steep craggy wall-like slope to the west and step-like mesas and buttes to the east. The crest line has an average height of 920m and it runs in broad curves towards east or west. Kalsubai (1646 m) and Salher (1,567 m) are two important peaks in the northern section. The passes of the Thalghat and the Bhorghat were the most important routes for inland trade. The inland routes are described with a map in the second chapter. From south of 160 N latitude to the Nilgiri Hills, the Sahyadris are formed of granites and gneisses, with more rugged topography. They are covered with dense forests and run closer to the coast. Their average elevation is 1,220 m and several peaks exceed 1,500 m – for example, Kudremukh (1,892 m) and Pushpagiri (1,714 m). The Nilgiri Hills, which the Sahyadris join near Gudalur, rise to over 2000 m. Doda Betta peak (2637 m) situated near to Udagamandalam (Ootacamund) is the highest point. 12 Sherwani and Joshi, Medieval Deccan, op.cit. Vol.I, p.3. 21 South of the Nilgiri Hills, the Palghat gap is a prominent break in the continuity of the Sahyadris. “The gap is only 24 km. wide at its narrowest point and 144 m. high in contrast to the bordering ranges which rise to 1500-2000 m. At this Palghat gap the Deccan highlands have their southern limit.” 13 South of the Nilgiri and beyond the Palaghat gap have an intricate system of steeply rising hills. It includes the Anaimalai Hills in the north, the Palni Hills in the north-east and the Cardamom or Elamalai Hills in the south. The culmination point of these Hills is the Anai Mudi peak (2695 m) The Sahyadris presents a very youthful topography with a steep scarp-like face to the west. “The main watershed of the Deccan plateau runs through their crest close to the West Coast. The rivers flowing eastward from the Sahyadris have broad valleys and graded profiles right up to their sources, in contrast to the narrow gorge- like valleys and steep gradients of the west-flowing streams. This has led some geologists and geographers to conclude that the Sahyadris have been formed due to down-faulting of a strip of country on their west in the Arabian Sea.”14 1.2 The Deccan Plateau The Deccan plateau, lying within the framework of the Satpura-Mahadeo- Mai-kala ranges, the Eastern Ghats and the Sahyadri, is slightly tilted towards south- east. The height varys from 300 m in the east to 900 m in the west. The Maharashtra plateau in the north is formed of horizontal lava sheets which have led to the formation of a typical Deccan Trap topography with mesa-like hills and ridges and broad valleys. A number of finger-like spurs extend eastwards from the Sahyadris. The most prominent among these are the Satmala-Ajanta Range between the Tapti 13 Ibid, p.4. 14 T.C. Sharma & O Coutinho (ed.), Economic and Commercial Geography of India, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1996, pp. 10-12. 22 and Godavari; the Harishchandra-Balaghat Range between the Godavari and Bhima; and the Mahadeo Range between the Bhima and Krishna, all rising to above 600 m height. The Andhra Plateau to the south-east is carved out of Archaean gneisses. The northern area between the River Wardha and Pranhita is more hilly and forested, whereas the southern area is an undulating plain dotted with low hills and shallow depressions. This part of the plateau is extensively cultivated up to the coastal plains, but covered by dense forests to the east of Godavari “where it stretches in gentle grades to the crest of the Eastern Ghats.” In the beginning of the sixteenth century Domingo Paes, a contemporary observer, records that this territory east of the Godavari “is all covered with scrub, the densest possible to be seen, in which there are great beasts and [this] forms so strong a fortress for it that it protects both sides.”15 The Karnataka plateau is also built on the Archaeans. The north Karnataka plateau is a rolling country below 600 m drained by the Krishna towards east. The south Karnataka plateau is a higher surface, 600-900 m average height, drained by the Cauvery towards south-east. The plateau rises south-westwards and merges in the Nilgiris. “The Desh country up to Belgam is comparatively flat being studded with sparse hills, and the terrain is open and easy for the movement of trade and armies. But south of Belgam up to Dharwar and beyond, the countryside of the Desh adjoining the Sahyadri ridge is hilly and wooded.”16 1.3 The Eastern Ghats The Eastern Ghats form the eastern boundary of the Deccan plateau. They are poorly marked than the Sahyadris and are in fact an irregular system of hills called 15 Robert Sewell, A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagara): a Contribution to the History of India, 1900, Reprint, Delhi, 1962, p. 236. 16 Sherwani and Joshi, Medieval Deccan, op.cit. Vol.I. p. 9. 23 by different names in different areas. They exhibit true mountain character between the Mahanadi and Godavari with a width of 200 km in the north and 100 km in the south. Their average height in this section is 920 m. with several peaks exceeding 1500m. The highest point (1680 m) is in the Visakhapatnam district; Mahendragiri (1501 m), is the second highest, point in the Ganjam district of Orissa. The ranges are principally composed of khondalites and charnokites and covered by dense forests. The Eastern Ghats again appear as continuous ranges in the Cuddapah and Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh. The most prominent are the Nallamalla Hills, 900-1100 m high, composed of quartzites and slates. The southern part of these hills is referred to as the Palkonda Range. Farther south in Tamil Nadu, the system becomes more confused, individual ranges running generally towards west or south-west. They are called Javadi Hills in North Arcot district, Gingee Hills in south Arcot district, Kollaimalai and Pachaimalai in Tiruchirapalli district, Shevaroys and Gondumalai in Salem district and Biligri Rangan Hills in Coimbatore district. The last named attain a height of 1279 m. Composed mostly of charnockites; these hills have a bold relief with steep slopes. “In the south along the Coromandel Coast the ports of Negapatnam and Porto Novo came under Bijapur control for a brief while late in the seventeenth century when that kingdom extended its boundaries from Jingi to Tanjore in the Kaveri region.”17 1.4 The Coasts The mainland of India has a coastline stretching for over 4500 km. from the Rann of Kutch in the west to the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta in the east. This coastline is washed by the waters of the Arabian Sea in the west and the Bay of Bengal in the 17 Sherwani and Joshi, Medieval Deccan, op.cit., Vol.I, p.24.