From Tomóchic to Las Jornadas Villistas: Literary and Cultural Regionalism in Northern Mexico by Anne M. McGee A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Romance Languages and Literatures: Spanish) in The University of Michigan 2008 Doctoral Committee: Associate Professor Gareth Williams, Chair Associate Professor Cristina Moreiras-Menor Associate Professor Gustavo Verdesio Assistant Professor Lawrence M. La Fountain-Stokes ____________________________© Anne M. McGee____________________________ All rights reserved 2008 Dedication To my first friend, teacher, and confidant, Patricia Ann McGee, otherwise known as, Mom. ii Acknowledgements I would first like to thank my advisor and mentor Gareth Williams who has guided me throughout my graduate career. Without his advice, understanding, and suggestions, I may have never realized this project to completion. It was he who introduced me to the work of Nellie Campobello, and who filled my first summer reading list with numerous texts on Pancho Villa and the Mexican Revolution. I appreciate Gareth for always being frank, and pushing me to improve my work. I have always counted on and appreciated his direct and honest critique. In addition, I would like to express my gratitude to the other members of my committee. Cristina Moreiras-Menor has been both my professor and friend from my very first year in graduate school. She has patiently listened to my ideas, and helped me immensely. I will also never forget my first course, “Rethinking Indigeneities” with Gustavo Verdesio. Whether in class or over a cup of coffee (or other beverage), Gustavo has always been ready and willing to participate in the type of lively discussions that have shaped my work at the University of Michigan. Although I met Lawrence (Larry) La Fountain-Stokes in my final years of candidacy, I appreciate his enthusiasm and willingness to contribute to my doctoral work. I would also like to express my appreciation to everyone in the Department of Romance Languages & Literatures. Our wonderful staff keeps everything running smoothly. I have no idea how they do it. I have also been lucky to work with a number of dedicated and talented educators. Thank you to all the course coordinators, lecturers, and GSIs that make the department the place that it is. In addition, I would like to express my gratitude to my fellow graduate students, especially the members of my cohort, whose insights and opinions have greatly enhanced my understanding of the world. I owe a special debt to my classmate Iris Key for always listening and providing kind words of support. I must also remember the Spanish language faculty at Western Michigan University in Kalamazoo who initially inspired me to pursue my PhD. During my repeated visits to Mexico, I also benefited greatly from the wisdom and hospitality of the Nevárez Saucedo family in Durango. There will always be a place in my heart for Mica, Paty, Hector, and Lupita. Finally, I would like to thank the Department of Romance Languages & Literatures and the Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studies at the University of Michigan for providing me with the institutional and financial support that allowed me to complete this project. In 2006, I received a Humanities Research Fellowship from Rackham that allowed me to conduct research in both Ann Arbor and Mexico. The final chapter of my dissertation would not have been possible without the summer research funds administered by the department, and provided by the graduate school. Ultimately, I was able to finish the writing process thanks to a One-Term Dissertation Fellowship from Rackham. iii Table of Contents Dedication ..................................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements...................................................................................................................................... iii Introduction...................................................................................................................................................1 Chapter One Tomóchic: Regional Rebellion, National Novel ...............................................................13 Historical Context.....................................................................................................................................13 Transitional Text or Meaningfully Ambivalent Work? ............................................................................18 Fanatical Indians or Angry Mestizos?.......................................................................................................31 Foundational Fiction or Foundational Disarticulation? ............................................................................47 The National Project: Support or Disillusionment?..................................................................................58 Conclusions ..............................................................................................................................................71 Chapter Two Cartucho: A Regional Inversion of National Myth ........................................................73 Historical Context—From Tomóchic to Cartucho ...................................................................................73 Ignored text or suppressed threat? ............................................................................................................84 Una novela de la Revolución or its regional inversion? ...........................................................................90 An Inverted View of Revolution or Civil War?......................................................................................114 Una niña de la Revolución or A Regional Foundational Fiction?..........................................................135 Conclusiones...........................................................................................................................................160 Chapter Three Pancho Villa & Las Jornadas Villistas: Body Politics, Performance, and Regional Identity .......................................................................................................................................................164 Historical Context—From Cartucho to Las Jornadas Villistas..............................................................164 Pancho Villa and Body Politics: Chihuahua, Parral, or Mexico City? ...................................................195 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................249 Appendix of Figures..................................................................................................................................252 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................................................275 iv Introduction On the morning of January 1, 1994, just as the North American Free Trade Agreement took effect (NAFTA) and it appeared that the hegemonic Mexican state had finally realized its goal of national unification and stability, the Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional (EZLN) seized control of the city of San Cristobál de las Casas, violently drawing both national and international attention to the state of affairs in southern Mexico. By naming their movement after General Emiliano Zapata, and thus evoking the image, myth, and memory of this fallen revolutionary leader, the EZLN linked its supposedly national cause to a historically regional struggle that was fundamentally based on land reform and local autonomy. Although Zapata was eventually appropriated as a national hero, during his lifetime his followers predominantly came from rural southern communities where Zapatismo claimed its greatest victories.1 In this respect, the modern zapatista movement is also inherently regional in nature. Yet, much like the 1968 student movement which resulted in the infamous Tlatelolco massacre, the 1994 zapatista uprising revealed many of the persistent inconsistencies and unresolved contradictions in the Mexican national project at a critical moment in the country’s development. In this way, a geographically limited or regional occurrence greatly affected the nation and exposed the limitations of the 1 It is important to note that although an equestrian statue was erected in his honor in Mexico City, Zapata’s remains were never relocated to the national revolutionary monument in the nation’s capital like those of his fellow revolutionary generals from other parts of the country. While I discuss this case in more detail in chapter three, ultimately neither Zapata’s family nor his faithful followers in his home state of Morelos would consent to the removal of his bones from his home territory. Regardless of the central state’s claims, he remained a highly regional figure. 1 central state’s control. By appropriating Zapata’s regional legacy for it own use, the EZLN seemed to respond to the claim that the promise of the Mexican Revolution had never been realized, both in the South, and the nation as a whole. Although it ultimately failed to spark a more widespread rebellion, the emergence of the EZLN demonstrated the revolutionary potential of relatively marginal and/or regional populations. Just as Mexico prepared to enter a new century characterized by increased globalization,