In the Shadow of Jim Crow: The Benching and Betrayal of Willis Ward DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Tyran Kai Steward, M.A. Graduate Program in History The Ohio State University 2013 Dissertation Committee: Hasan K. Jeffries, Advisor Kevin Boyle Judy Tzu-Chun Wu Copyright by Tyran Kai Steward 2013 Abstract This dissertation provides a historical study of Jim Crow in the North via the interplay of race and sport. It analyzes the 1934 benching of Willis Ward, an African-American football player at the University of Michigan and reveals the racialized social order maintained by Michigan’s famed Athletic Director Fielding Yost. This study probes how Ward’s benching affected his career, especially his work directing hiring practices at the Ford Motor Company. It also explores Ward’s conservative politics and his espousal of policies and practices aimed at maintaining the racial status quo. This project also chronicles how racism toward Ward shaped the politics of his teammate and future U.S. President Gerald Ford who supported affirmative action and civil rights legislation but opposed busing as a means to carry out school desegregation. A significant body of scholarship has examined the history of Jim Crow in the South. This dissertation, in contrast, provides an opportunity to examine the North’s separate but unequal practices. This previously unstudied history of Ward and other black athletes at Michigan offer four significant insights regarding Northern race relations: it demonstrates how Northern institutions maintained segregationist practices without having the same legal underpinnings that existed in Southern states; it emphasizes the opposition that black athletes faced and exposes how institutions such as Michigan actively engaged in constructing racial barriers that constrained African American performance and ii compelled these players to exceed standard athletic expectations in order to earn spots on top college teams; it underscores how racial intolerance toward black athletes catalyzed resistance, created race advocacy and opposition, and contributed to a long history of black conservatism; and finally, it stresses how the racism black athletes met on the court and gridiron mirrored the racial prejudice they and other African Americans experienced in their interactions on campus, in the community, and throughout the country. By probing the entrenched restrictions that African Americans encountered in the North, this study provides a more comprehensive view of race relations in America. iii Dedication I dedicate this dissertation to Tamanika, Niara, and Saniya. iv Acknowledgments This dissertation represents the long road traveled in research and writing to turn an idea into a meaningful historical study. Along this road, I have been blessed to have interacted with so many wonderful persons who have contributed to this project, to my development and growth as a scholar, and to my life. Thus, I owe the deepest gratitude to a broad community of persons who have supported my scholarly aspirations: those persons who have rigorously trained me as a historian; the family and friends who have offered encouragement and love throughout this process; and every single individual who has inspired a thought, stirred reflection, or produced an idea that caused me to fall in love many times over with this vocation in the life of the mind. From the formative stages of this dissertation to the final draft, I owe an immense debt of gratitude to my advisor, Professor Hasan K. Jeffries. Your belief in this project from day one has been inspiring and enabled me to see the study as vital to the existing historiography in race relations. I am equally indebted to my committee members. Professor Boyle, you have challenged me to research, think, and write better. You always seem to know the right questions to ask and have guided me to new ways of thinking about my research and the history profession. Professor Wu, there are not enough words for me to express the enormity of my appreciation for your friendship, guidance, and support. Your encouragement as well as the insight you have provided to me on three v separate projects is deeply valued. You are all exemplary and tireless scholars who I wish to emulate as I begin my career as a professional historian. I wish to thank the entire Department of History at Ohio State University. I especially want to thank Professors Robin Judd and Kenneth Goings. I also wish to thank several scholars who have supported my endeavors from a distance: Theresa Runstedtler, Patrick Jones, David Trowbridge, Allyson Hobbs, Glenda Gilmore, Robert Citino, Robert Perry, and Philip Schmitz. I want to thank the Graduate School at Ohio State University. I also wish to thank the archivists and repositories that have supported my research endeavors. I am truly grateful to Bertha Ihnat of The Ohio State University Archives and to Douglas Smith. There are persons for whom words just cannot express the debt of my gratitude. I wish to thank the members of my family who remain an incredible blessing to my life: Gregory Steward, D’Ondra Steward, Darice Coleman, Darius Coleman, Dionte Steward, Cade Rhone, Jon Wilson, Ronald Wilson, Tanae Wilson, Laura Terry, Willie Terry, Catherine Moore, Alberta Wiggins, Shaka Terry, and Hodari Terry. I also wish to thank the following friends: Jacquelyn Taylor, Andre Taylor, Tigwa Davis, Dorothy Jones- Davis, Delia Fernandez, and Kyla Young. Finally, I want to give thanks to the four most important persons in my life. First, I wish to thank my mother, Emma Wilder. The encouragement, love, and sacrifices you have made throughout my life have motivated me to aim for success. I adore you and vi hope that this dissertation reflects your efforts to raise me to be the best person I could be. I want to thank my two daughters, Niara and Saniya. Thank you for your love and for your patience, for giving daddy the space to work, and for providing me with a laugh and a smile when I needed it most. I cannot explain fully how much you two mean to me and how each day I strive to make you proud even if you do not quite understand why daddy has spent so much time working on the computer. Last, but certainly not least, I want to thank my wife, Tamanika (Terry) Steward. I esteem you for your love, your patience, your sacrifice, and your tolerance of books, papers, and scraps of papers all over the house. You are my best friend and the first person I look to for insight and inspiration. I cherish your companionship and compassion. I earnestly feel that I am a better human being because of your presence in my life and feel that I could not have accomplished this monumental achievement without you standing by my side. vii Vita May 1996 .......................................................Marietta High School May 2000 .......................................................B.A. Sociology, Morehouse College April 2009 ......................................................M.A. History, Eastern Michigan University September 2010 to present ............................Graduate Fellow/Presidential Fellow, Department of History, The Ohio State University Publications ARTICLES “TIME NOT RIPE: BLACK WOMEN’S QUEST FOR CITIZENSHIP AND THE BATTLE FOR FULL INCLUSION AT OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY,” OHIO HISTORY 121 (MARCH 2014) “FROM SELMA TO STONEWALL: GAY RIGHTS IN THE 50TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE MARCH ON WASHINGTON,” ORIGINS (AUGUST 2013) BOOK REVIEWS REVIEW OF CHILDREN OF FIRE: A HISTORY OF AFRICAN AMERICANS, BY THOMAS C. HOLT, (NEW YORK: HILL & WANG, 2010), IN NORTH CAROLINA HISTORICAL REVIEW (OCTOBER 2012) REVIEW OF GRASSROOTS AT THE GATEWAY: CLASS POLITICS & BLACK FREEDOM STRUGGLE IN ST. LOUIS, 1936-75, BY CLARENCE LANG, (ANN ARBOR: UNIVERSITY OF viii MICHIGAN PRESS, 2009), IN JOURNAL OF AFRICAN AMERICAN HISTORY VOL. 97, NO. 3 (SUMMER 2012) REVIEW OF IN SEARCH OF THE TALENTED TENTH: HOWARD UNIVERSITY PUBLIC INTELLECTUALS AND THE DILEMMAS OF RACE, 1926-1970, BY ZACHERY R. WILLIAMS, (COLUMBIA: UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI PRESS, 2009), IN NORTH CAROLINA HISTORICAL REVIEW VOL. 88, NO. 4 (OCTOBER 2011) Fields of Study Major Field: History ix Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................. v Vita ................................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures .................................................................................................................... xi Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: Not Far from Birmingham ............................................................................. 23 Chapter 2: Jim Crow in the Big House and Elsewhere in the North ................................ 71 Chapter 3: Bonfires Lit in Protest ................................................................................... 120 Chapter 4: Old, Traditional Antagonisms ....................................................................... 171