PRAGMATIC THEORY APPLIED TO CHRISTIAN MISSION IN AFRICA: WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO LUO RESPONSES TO ‘BAD’ IN GEM, KENYA By JAMES OSMAR HARRIES A thesis submitted to The University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Theology School of Historical Studies The University of Birmingham January 2007 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. Abstract Linguistic research showing dependence on context in deriving language meaning discloses the integral linking of the Luo language with their departed ancestors and the upholding of customary laws. Meaning and impact being transformed in the process of translation from one context to another explains the severe limitations found in previous attempts at cross- cultural understanding between Western and Luo (African) peoples. Studying Luo people’s understanding of ‘bad’ in the light of the above reveals much that often remains invisible to Westerners. ‘Bad’ arises from the activities of ghosts acting through people’s hearts often as a result of breaking taboos. Cleansing, especially of ghosts, through prayer, keeping customary laws and salvation are used to counteract such ‘bad’. Conventional Biblical and mission hermeneutics are, in failing to account for pragmatic linguistics, found seriously wanting. Forces and powers being spiritually based in a monistic worldview amongst the Luo render clear cross-cultural communication with a rationalist and monotheist West impossible. Theological education based on African languages is advocated as the way to engage the challenges of Christianity with Luo ways of life in a way that will result in a deeply rooted African church, and a moral, vibrant, intellectually and economically active African society. Acknowledgements The early formation of the thinking that makes up this thesis arose between 1988 and 1991 when colleagues at Mukinge Girls Secondary School in Zambia where I was teaching, such as Goliath Kasabula and Fackson Ntaimo helped me to realise how much I had to learn about Africa. Thanks particularly to Dorothy Haile and Steve Weiandt (of the African Evangelical Fellowship) who were inspirations to me. Before I ever left for Africa Peter Batchelor encouraged me to visit the people in their villages, and Ian Wallace gave an informed ear to my probing questions. Tony Barnett of the University of East Anglia was of great assistance in helping me to understand where I stood in terms of development issues in 1992. I am extremely indebted to Rev. David Hewitt and John Butt of Andover Baptist Church, and many others in my supporting churches in the UK and in Germany, for standing with me consistently since 1988. A year at London Bible College brought me many inspiring friendships such as those of Richard Briggs and Paul Newton that I continue to value, as well as a high standard of Christian scholarship. My thanks go to James Aweyo for opening the door for me to Kenya in 1993 and hosting me for a number of years thereafter. Thanks to Abraham Omaya and Henry Apondi with whom I have worked in the Yala Theological Centre since 1994, and also my pastor here in Kenya since 1996 Paul Otieno, who has become increasingly supportive of YTC over the years. Amongst the many who have helped me to understand the Luo and their ways of life I can mention especially Mary Ahon, Elijah Okumu, the late John Ochieng’ and Conny Adhiambo. Steve Rennick’s welcome to the staff of Kima International School of Theology and to Church of God (Anderson) missionary circles enabled me to continue my ministry in rural Luoland. Thanks also to Don Smith who took over as Principal of KIST and has continued to extend that welcome to date. I include Don Riley and Don Armstrong amongst the Church of God missionaries who have been a particular inspiration to me. Meeting John Padwick in Nairobi in 1995 opened doors to many very helpful contacts with others concerned to work with AICs (African Independent Churches). Those who have been an inspiration to me from this network include Stan Nussbaum, John Padwick himself, Peter Fulljames (my initial supervisor for this thesis) and latterly Allan Anderson who has been my supervisor for this thesis. My great and earnest thanks go to many colleagues in Zambia in years gone by and more recently in Kenya, but also Tanzania, whom it would not be possible to mention by name without filling many more pages. My acceptance into the African community around me has been a privilege for which I will always remain extremely grateful. Thanks to my parents Andy and Gudrun Harries for doing nothing but encourage me despite my having moved thousands of miles away from home into a foreign culture. Table of Contents List of Abbreviations Used 1 Glossary 2 Maps 5 Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION 8 1.1. History of the Luo People of Gem 9 1.2. Theological and Ecclesial Background 12 1.3. Short History of Yala Theological Centre 16 1.4. A Worldview Rooted in Belief in Juok (Vital Force) 17 1.5. Consequences of Cross-cultural incomprehension 18 1.6. Theological Education, Pragmatics and Theology 21 1.7. Target Readership 22 1.8. Summary of Contents of Subsequent Chapters 25 Chapter 2. LANGUAGE THEORY AND RESEARCH 28 METHODOLOGY 2.1. Introduction 28 2.2. Pragmatics – the role of context in understanding 32 2.3. The cooperative principle 36 2.3.1. ‘Contribution to be as Informative as Required’ 48 2.3.2. ‘Don’t say what you Believe to be False’ 52 2.3.3. ‘Don’t say that for Which you don’t 55 have Adequate Evidence’ 2.3.4. ‘Avoid Obscurity of expression’ 62 2.3.5. ‘Avoid Ambiguity’ 63 2.4. Theories in Pragmatics 63 2.4.1. Relevance Theory 64 2.4.2. Speech-act Theory 67 2.4.3. The Breadth of Context 68 2.5. Other Linguistic Considerations 70 2.5.1. Beyond the ‘Age of Reason’ 71 2.5.2. How Variety has been Done Away With 74 2.5.3. The Challenges of Translation 76 2.5.4. Translations that Corroborate Ignorance 80 2.6. Research Methodology: Style of Life – to Enable Learning 83 as the People Learn 2.6.1. A Brief Biography 84 2.6.2. Learning of Language 87 2.6.3. Living With 88 2.6.4. Have no Money 89 2.6.5. Judge Not 92 2.6.6. Don’t Ask Questions 95 2.6.7. Undercutting Presuppositions 97 2.6.8. Loaded Judgments 101 2.6.9. Cover Ups 102 2.6.10. Avoiding Guilt Traps 103 2.6.11. Questioning the Universality of Academia 107 2.6.12. Discerning Muzzled Debates 112 2.7. The Research Process 113 2.7.1. Critiquing Authors Writing of their own People 113 2.7.2. Research Timetable and Procedure 117 2.7.3. Verification Procedures 125 2.7.4. Analysis of ‘Bad’ 130 2.8. Conclusion 134 Chapter 3. SETTING THE SCENE: THE PEOPLE OF GEM 136 3.1. Introduction 136 3.2. Physical and social statistics for Gem and Siaya 137 3.3. Beliefs and Practices in Gem 141 3.3.1. Luo Kitgi gi Timbegi (The Luo, their 141 Customs and Traditions) 3.3.1.1. To Move your Homestead and Build your House 142 3.3.1.2. Mothers and Children 143 3.3.1.3. Matters of Marrying 144 3.3.1.4. A Senior Elder Dies 145 3.3.1.5. Community Pleasure 145 3.3.1.6. Fishing, Magical Practitioners, other 146 Bad Ways to Die 3.3.2. Chike Jaduong’ e Dalane (Traditional 148 Rules for the Keeper of a Homestead) 3.3.3. A Subjective Description of ‘Real Life’ in Gem 153 3.4. Example Contexts for Language Use Analysed in Chapters 4 – 6. 158 3.4.1. A Death in Setini Village 159 3.4.2. A Discussion with a church leader following a 164 service in a Roho church 3.4.3. A Sermon Preached at a home Meeting in a ‘Power’ church 167 3.5. Conclusion 168 Chapter 4. GIMA RACH EN (WHAT BAD IS) 170 4.1. Introduction 170 4.2. Means used to Identify the Bad 171 4.3. Discussion of Bad Things 175 4.3.1. Kindi kod Nyasaye (Between you and God) 175 4.3.2. Gik ma Ndalogi (Things of Today or Modern Things). 182 4.3.3. Jochiende / Shaitani (Ghosts and the Devil) 187 4.3.4. Kit Ng’ato (the Character of a Person) 188 4.3.5. Kit gi Timbe Joluo (the Nature and Customs of the Luo) 190 4.3.6. Kweche (Taboos) 194 4.3.7. Siasa (complex loaded relationships), Kaka Itiyo Kod 196 Ji (How you Interact with People) and ‘Relational Bad’ in General 4.3.8. Other Categories of Bad Things. 202 4.3.8.1. Primary Level Bad 202 4.3.8.2. Bad of spiritual Origin. 203 4.4. Conclusion 205 Chapter 5. KA MA RACH OAE (WHERE BAD COMES FROM) 207 5.1. Introduction 207 5.2. Means Used to Locate the Source of the Bad 208 5.3. The Universal Causes 215 5.3.1.