Factors that affected the Tunisian industrialization movement in the era of Ahmed Bey (r. 1837-1855) A dissertation submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History of the College of Arts and Sciences by Ali Eltarhuni 2015 M.A. University of Benghazi August 2005 Committee Chair: Elizabeth Frierson, Ph.D. Abstract The Tunisian industrial movement began in the era of Ahmed Bey, crowned ruler of the Ottoman province of Tunis in 1837. Throughout his reign, Ahmed Bey faced a series of exceptional challenges: the ruling class in Tunisia felt the direct external dangers that surrounded them and threatened their security, as Algeria was occupied by France and the Ottomans re-controlled Tripoli. Ahmad Bey loved independence, aggrandizement, and greatness; he was convinced that Tunisia must take advantage of progress, civilization, and military power following the modern European example. This meant that his reform had a solid ground to stand on it, but it would face difficulties and grow in a tough environment. Under those conditions, Tunisian affairs mandated a rapid and uprising “reform thought” that would secure wealth and military power in a short time. The strategy of Ahmad Bey at first was to build a strong modern army that would keep Tunisia safe and enhance his own power. Hence, he built a military school and brought highly qualified European officers and administrators to run it, and then he sent students to European schools to learn various disciplines and skills, while at the same time exposing them to the European culture. The outcome of the strategy favored the reform movement, as it produced an intellectual insemination and in few years served as a vehicle of change. Eventually, none of Ahmed Bey’s reforms met with unequivocal success. This study examines the modern industrialization reform during the era of Ahmad Bey. It analyzes both external and internal factors that motivated for reform and the effect of pressure from Europe as well as the replication of the European models of modernity. The evaluation elaborates on the successes and failures of the economic, administrative, and political reforms, plus it explains the extent of their effects on the Tunisian budget. ii iii Content Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………..… 6-13 Chapter One: External Factors. ……….………………………………………….…….... 14-35 1. The Impact of Europe...………….……………………….…………………………...14 a. The Role of Consuls and European Communities………………………………....15 b. The Journeys of Tunisians to Europe……………………………………………....20 c. Translation of European Books to Arabic Language……………………………....24 d. The Magnitude and Extent of the European Civilization……………………….….25 2. Ottoman Empire and Its Impact: …………………………………………………...…28 a. The Journeys of Official Delegates between Istanbul and Tunisia .……………….29 b. The Role of Ottoman Regulations ...……………………………..………………...30 3. Egypt and Its Impact …………………………………………………………………..31 a. The Journeys of Tunisians to Egypt ……………………………...……………...…32 b. Modern Books Written by Egyptian Reformists………………………..………….33 c. The Magnitude and Extent of the Egyptian Influence………………...……………34 Chapter Two: Internal Factors. ………………………………………………………….…36-56 1. The Policy of Ahmad Bey…………………………………………………………..…36 2. The Impact of Ahmad Bey’s Cabinet on Tunisian Finance and Economy…………….42 3. Administration Sector……………………………………………………………….…49 4. Reformist Thought.………………………………………………………………….…52 a. Executive Pragmatic Thought…………………………………………………..…..52 b. Planned Reform Thought……………………………………………………..….....54 Chapter Three: Traditional Industries. ………………………………………………….….57-71 iv 1. Remarkable Traditional Industries in Tunisia ………………………………………….57 a. Chechia Industry…………………………………………………………………….58 b. Textile Industry……………………………………………………………….……..60 c. Mills, Olive Presses, and Their By-Products……………………………………..…61 d. Tanning and Leather Products………………………………………………………63 e. Other Traditional Industries…………………………………………………………65 2. Handicraft Regulation…………………………………………………………………...68 Chapter Four: Modern Industry. ……………………………………………………………..72-89 1. Military Industries ………………………………………………………………………72 a. Weapons Industry………………………………………………………….….……..72 b. Gunpowder Industry …………………………………………………….…….….…74 c. Ship Industry ………………………………………………………….……….....…76 2. Civil Industries ……………………………………………………….…………………79 a. Mineral Extraction (Mining) ……………………………………….………….…..…79 b. Textile Factory ……………………………………………………….……….….…..82 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………….…..……90 Bibliography …………………………………………………………………………..……..93 v Introduction The Tunisian industrial movement began in the reign of Ahmed Bey, the Ottoman appointed ruler of Tunisian province, in 1837. Ahmed Bey began his career as an Ottoman officer and utilized European manpower and ideas to modernize his realm. Like Muhammad Ali of Egypt and the Ottoman Sultans of the time, Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839) and Abdulmecid I (r. 1839 -1861), Ahmed Bey implemented an strategic plan that used European ideas, manpower, and finance to modernize his territory in a way James Gelvin describes as “defensive develop-mentalism”.1 This study examines the modern industrialization reform during the era of Ahmad Bey. It analyzes both external and internal factors that motivated the reform, and the effect of pressure from Europe as well as the replication of the European models of modernity. The evaluation elaborates on the successes and failures of the economic, administrative, and political reforms; it also explains the extent of their effects on the Tunisian budget. This topic will demonstrate the importance of the industrialization movement and its contemporary and future benefits; this subject has not previously been studied in detail or with precision. Most of the scholarly studies done about this era of Tunisian history were focused on agriculture and trade over the long term, despite the many stacks of documents on this topic in the national archives of Tunisia. The research questions investigated in this study are enumerated as three points. First, what were the factors that led to the industrialization movement and affected its development? Second, what were the goals and achievements of industrialization 1 James Gelvin, The Modern Middle East: A History (Oxford, 2004), 71. 6 policies? Third, what were the roles of Europeans in this movement? Fourth, what types of industries were in Tunisia before the start of reforms? Fifth, how did the Tunisian budget affect the reforms? And sixth, in what ways did industrialization succeed and in what ways did it fail? The first chapter focuses on the European impact, as it was a significant external factor. It discusses the role of European consuls and communities, the journeys of Tunisians to Europe, and the translation of European books to the Arabic language. It also examines the extent of the influence of the European civilization, the Ottoman Empire, and Egypt on Tunisia. The second chapter deals with internal factors, such as Ahmed Bey’s politics, the administrative system, and the emergence of reformist thought in Tunisia. Chapter three highlights traditional industries and their contribution to the Tunisian economy. Chapter four surveys Tunisia’s modern industry that was divided into a military industry and civil industry. The analyses in this chapter present a case study about the textile factory dar al-malf, which was considered an important industrial achievement for its period of time. The data for this case study largely come from the Tunisian National Archives; the principal documents include the letters of its director, Mr. Faussie, that describe the situation of the factory and its component parts. Also included are other letters from European engineers that showed the role of European design in the factory as well as the situation of Tunisian workers in the production process and their financial and professional status. Primary sources for this research are predominately from the Tunisian National Archive with printed materials in the Arabic Language that go back to the nineteenth 7 century. The noted historian and public official Ahmad ibn Abi al-Diyaf (1804-1874), well known as Ben Diyaf, wrote a six-volume history attached with two bibliographical volumes under title “Ithaf ahl al-zaman bi akhbar muluk tunis wa ‘ahd al-aman” (Presenting Contemporaries with the History of the Rulers of Tunisia and the Fundamental Pact), which has been partially translated and edited by L. Carl Brown: “Consult Them in the Matter: A Nineteenth-Century Islamic Argument for Constitutional Government” (University of Arkansas, 2005). The sources can be divided into three types. The first type is as described above; the second type is the correspondence among political authorities, treaties, agreements, and contracts; and the third type is the correspondence with engineers, consuls, and other foreigners. More than half of these documents were written in Arabic, and they contain important information from a variety of sources that are unique. The archival documents are indispensable for determining the reality of day to day events, but useful manuscripts and printed materials found in the Tunisian National Library enhanced this research. The first is the aforementioned work by Ben Diyaf, and the second is a five-volume work by Muhammad Bayram al-Khamis titled “Safwat al- I’tibar bi Mustawda al-Amsar wa al-Aqtar” (A Consideration of the Treasury of Cities and Districts) that is described by