The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of the Liberal Arts FIGHT OR FLIGHT: JEREMIAH'S POLEMIC AGAINST EMIGRATION TO EGYPT IN LITERARY AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE A Dissertation In History and Classics & Ancient Mediterranean Studies by Sara L. Hoffman © 2015 Sara L. Hoffman Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2015 The dissertation of Sara Hoffman was reviewed and approved* by the following: Baruch Halpern Professor Emeritus of Ancient History and Jewish Studies Dissertation Co-Advisor Co-Chair of Committee Gary Knoppers Edwin Erle Sparks Professor of Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies, Religious Studies, and Jewish Studies Dissertation Co-Advisor Co-Chair of Committee Janina Safran Associate Professor of History Donald Redford Professor of Classics & Ancient Mediterranean Studies and History Ken Hirth Professor of Anthropology Michael Kulikowski Head, Department of History Professor of History and Classics & Ancient Mediterranean Studies *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School ii ABSTRACT This study evaluates Jeremiah’s polemic against emigration to Egypt from both literary and historical perspectives. Previous interpretations have emphasized the Deuteronomistic character of this polemic. In contrast, this study moves beyond noting superficial similarities with Deut 17, Deut 28, and 2 Kgs 25. It analyzes how themes and language shared with Deuteronomistic literature actually function in the Jeremianic context and in what ways their Jeremianic usage diverges from Deut and DtrH and attests to the diversity of the Deuteronomistic schools. It then evaluates what practical role the theological rhetoric of Jeremiah played in the political, social, and economic landscape of the 6th century BCE. Situating Jer 42's prohibition within the literary context of Jer 37–44, this study identifies two distinctive stages of development for this narrative block: an early 6th century BCE pro- remnant core and a later 6th century BCE adaptation and expansion by members of the Babylonian golah. Despite shared material, there are important differences between Jer 37– 44's representation of the period from the siege of Jerusalem through Gedaliah's tenure at Mizpah and DtrH's narration of these events in 2 Kgs 25, particularly regarding flight to Egypt and the viability of Judean communities in Egypt. Further, while the editors of both stages of Jer 37–44 appeal to Dtr rhetoric to support their views, they do so in different ways. In contrast to the pro-golah editors whose use of Dtr diction is very similar to DtrH, the pro- remnant core reshapes the language of Deuteronomy as a means of promoting submission to Babylon. In doing so, it presents views of conquest, exile, and Judah’s relationship to foreign powers that do not easily align with Deuteronomy itself. Finally, this study argues that the pro-remnant core’s appeal to the authority of Deuteronomy was necessary precisely because the opportunities available to foreigners in Egypt during this period made it such an attractive destination for refugees. Collaborators had a vested interest in maintaining stability under Babylonian rule because their status and property rights were tied to it. In its earliest stages, the prohibition against flight to Egypt represents an ongoing attempt by Babylonian collaborators to persuade Judeans to remain in the land. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Abbreviations viii List of Tables x Text Critical Sigla xi Acknowledgements xii Chapter 1: Introduction and Overview 1 I. Previous Approaches to Jeremiah's Prohibition against Flight to Egypt 4 A. Pro-Babylonian Politics 4 B. Reversal of the Exodus Event 8 C. Competing Claims of Status among Judean/Jewish Communities 12 D. Role of Deuteronomism 13 II. Contributions of This Study 14 A. Literary Approaches: Nature of Dtr Influence on the Jeremiah Tradition 14 B. Historical Approaches: Significance of Egypt as a Destination for Refugees 15 III. Outline of This Study 16 A. Chapter Two: Overview of Key Redaction Models 16 B. Chapter Three: Redaction History of Jer 37-44 17 C. Chapter Four: Linguistic Analysis of Jer 37-44 18 D. Chapter Five: Jeremiah's Prohibition in Historical Context 18 E. Chapter Six: Conclusions and Further Implications 20 Chapter 2: Models for the Redaction History of Jeremiah 22 I. Deuteronomism in the Jeremiah Tradition 22 A. Early Models 22 B. The Expansion of the Role of Dtr 24 C. Recent Perspectives on Dtr and Jeremiah 29 II. Competing Groups in the Redaction History of Jeremiah 37 A. Early Models 37 B. Intersection with Dtr Models 40 Chapter 3: The Redaction History of Jer 37-44 49 I. Characteristics of the Pro-Remnant Core 50 A. The Necessity of Submission to Babylon 50 1. During the Babylonian Siege 50 2. During Gedaliah's Tenure at Mizpah 54 3. During the Aftermath of Gedaliah's Assassination 55 B. Positive Representations of Babylonians and Life under Babylonian Rule 56 1. Fall of Jerusalem 56 2. Benefits for Collaborators 57 iv C. Stress on Ongoing Life in the Land of Judah 66 D. Key Themes, Date, and Authorship 67 II. Characteristics of Pro-Golah Adaptation and Expansion 69 A. The Desolation of Judah and the Empty Land Motif 69 B. Linking the Judean Community in Egypt with the Condemnation of Judah 72 C. Denying the Viability of the Judean Community in Egypt 74 D. Key Themes, Date, and Authorship 75 III. Jer 37-44 vs. 2 Kgs 25 76 A. Shared Source Material 77 B. Representations of the Remnant's Relationship with Babylon and Life 78 in the Land C. Representations of Flight to Egypt 81 D. Representations of Exilic Judean Communities 83 IV. Conclusions 86 A. Primary Characteristics of the Redaction Stages of Jer 37-44 86 B. Analysis of 2 Kgs 25 and Jer 37-44 88 C. Implications 89 Chapter 4: Linguistic Analysis of Jer 37-44 90 I. Dtr Diction and Allusions to Deuteronomy 92 A. Jer 38:1-6 92 1. Literary Context and Relationship between Jer 38:2 and Jer 21:9 92 2. Allusion to Deuteronomic Choice between Life and Death 95 B. Jer 38:14-28 96 1. Literary Context and Relationship with Jer 37:17-21 96 2. Allusion to the Deuteronomic Choice between Life and Death 99 100 למען ייטב לך .3 C. Jer 40:1-6 101 1. Literary Context and Relationship with Jer 39:11-14 101 105 ראה כל־הארץ לפניך .2 D. Jer 40:7-12 107 1. Literary Context and Relationship to 2 Kgs 25:23-24 107 2. Historical Context and Chronology of Events 111 112 למען ייטב לכם .3 115 אספו יין וקיץ ושׁמן...ושׁבו בעריכם אשׁר־תפשׂתם .4 123 אשׁר נדחו־שׁם .5 E. Jer 42:1-6 131 1. Literary Context 131 131 למען ייטב לכם .2 F. Jer 42:7-22 132 v 1. Literary Context 132 132 גור .2 138 הרעה אשׁר אני מביא עליהם .3 G. Jer 43:1-7 140 1. Literary Context 140 141 מכל־המקמות אשׁר נדחו שׁם .2 H. Jer 44 143 1. Literary Context and Coherence 143 144 הרעה אשׁר הבאתי על ירשׁלים ועל־ערי יהודה .2 146 אשׁלח אלכם את־כל־עבדי הנביאים .3 II. Conclusions 146 Α. Dtr Diction and the Pro-Remnant Core 146 1. Obedience to Yahweh Framed in Terms of Political Allegiance 146 2. Gedaliah Community Identified with Conquerors rather than the Cursed 148 3. Gedaliah Community Framed as Those Restored to the Land 149 4. Flight To Egypt Framed as a Sojourn for Relief from Conditions in the Land 149 5. Flight to Egypt Framed in Terms of National Judgment of Judah 150 B. Dtr Diction and the Pro-Golah Expansion 150 1. Judgment of Egyptian Judean Community Framed Exclusively in Cultic 150 Terms Chapter 5: Historical Context of Jeremiah's Prohibition against Flight to Egypt 152 I. Context between Egypt and the Levant in the Late Iron Age 153 A. 8th Century Interventions 153 1. Historical Background 153 2. 701 BCE 155 B. 7th Century Reemergence and Expansion 160 1. Historical Background 160 2. Textual Evidence for 26th Dynasty Imperialism 164 3. Archaeological Evidence for Egyptian Presence in the Levant 171 C. The 605/604 BCE Neo-Babylonian Campaign to the Levant 179 1. Textual Evidence 179 2. Archaeological Evidence 180 D. Post-604 BCE Egyptian Involvement in the Levant 182 E. Post-586 BCE Imperial Policies of the Babylonian Empire 187 1. Historical Background: 6th Century BCE Settlement in Judah 187 2. Ongoing Attempts to Expand the Babylonian Empire 195 3. Babylonian Imperial Administration and Goals 197 II. Development of the Judean Community in Egypt 200 A. Difficulty of Biblical Texts as Evidence 200 vi B. The Iron Age II 203 1. Lachish Letter III 203 2. Archaeological Evidence? 206 C. Persian and Ptolemaic Periods 207 1. Evidence from Elephantine 207 2. Letter of Aristeas 210 D. Conclusions 212 III. Context of Judean Community's Development 212 A. Levantine Groups in Egypt 212 1. Refugees from the Northern Kingdom? 212 2. Mercenaries 218 IV. Conclusions and Further Implications 218 Chapter 6: Conclusions and Further Implications 220 I. Pro-Remnant Core: Intersection of Literary and Historical Analysis 220 II. Pro-Golah Adaptation: Intersection of Literary and Historical Analysis 222 III. Implications for the Nature of Deuteronomistic Scribal Schools 224 Bibliography 226 vii ABBREVIATIONS 4QJera First series of Jeremiah scrolls found in Qumran Cave 4 4QJerb Second series of Jeremiah scrolls found in Qumran Cave 4 4QJerc Third series of Jeremiah scrolls found in Qumran Cave 4 Ant. Josephus, Antiquities ABC Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles ABL Assyrian and Babylonian Letters ARE Ancient Records of Egypt CIS Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum COS Context of Scripture, Volume 1: Canonical Compositions from the Biblical World DSS Dead Sea Scrolls DtrH Deuteronomistic History Dtr1 Josianic Redaction of the Deuteronomistic History Dtr2 Exilic Redaction of the Deuteronomistic History EA El-Amarna Letters G Old Greek GKC Kautzch, E., ed.