Turkey, Migration and the EU: Potentials, Challenges and Opportunities edited by Seçil Paçacı Elitok and Thomas Straubhaar EDITION HWWI Hamburg University Press Turkey, Migration and the EU: Potentials, Challenges and Opportunities Series Edition HWWI Volume 5 Turkey, Migration and the EU: Potentials, Challenges and Opportunities edited by Seçil Paçacı Elitok and Thomas Straubhaar Hamburg University Press Verlag der Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Hamburg Carl von Ossietzky Imprint Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek (German National Library). The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. The online version is available for free on the website of Hamburg University Press (open access). The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek stores this online publication on its Archive Server. The Archive Server is part of the deposit system for long-term availability of digital publications. Available open access in the Internet at: Hamburg University Press – http://hup.sub.uni-hamburg.de PURL: http://hup.sub.uni-hamburg.de/HamburgUP/HWWI5_Elitok_Migration Archive Server of the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek – http://deposit.d-nb.de ISBN 978-3-937816-94-4 (printed version) ISSN 1865-7974 (printed version) © 2012 Hamburg University Press, publishing house of the Hamburg State and University Library Carl von Ossietzky, Germany The contents are available under the terms of an open content licence of the type Creative Commons “Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.0 Germany (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)“(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/de). In essence, this licence al- lows to freely use the content, but not change it and only for non commercial purposes and only under the condition of the usual rules of citation. This publication contains figures. If the authors of the articles are not the authors of the figures, it is necessary to seek permissions for use (licences) from third parties according to copyright. Printing house: Elbe-Werkstätten GmbH, Hamburg, Germany http://www.ew-gmbh.de Cover design: Benjamin Guzinski, Hamburg Cover illustration: “Migrant”, courtesy of Alessandro Gatto Table of Contents List of Figures 7 List of Tables 8 Acknowledgement 9 Introduction 11 Seçil Paçacı Elitok and Thomas Straubhaar Demography and Migration in Transition: Reflections on EU-Turkey Relations 19 Ahmet İçduygu and Ayşem Biriz Karaçay Turkey’s “Critical Europeanization”: Evidence from Turkey’s Immigration Policies 39 Juliette Tolay Turkey’s New Draft Law on Asylum: What to Make of It? 63 Kemal Kirişçi Is Migration Feminized? 85 A Gender- and Ethnicity-Based Review of the Literature on Irregular Migration to Turkey Gülay Toksöz and Çağla Ünlütürk Ulutaş Turkey in the New Migration Era: Migrants between Regularity and Irregularity 113 Sema Erder and Selmin Kaşka Causes and Consequences of the Downturn in Financial Remittances to Turkey: A Descriptive Approach 133 Giulia Bettin, Seçil Paçacı Elitok and Thomas Straubhaar 6Table of Contents Bordering the EU: Istanbul as a Hotspot for Transnational Migration 167 Barbara Pusch Emigration of Highly Qualified Turks 199 A Critical Review of the Societal Discourses and Social Scientific Research Yaşar Aydın Continuity and Change: Immigration Policies in Germany from the Sixties to the Present 229 Mehmet Okyayuz Conclusion 259 Seçil Paçacı Elitok and Thomas Straubhaar List of Abbreviations 271 International Workshop on Migration Potentials from and to Turkey 273 Contributors 275 List of Figures Kirişçi Figure 1: Asylum Application in Turkey (1995–2010) 70 Bettin, Paçacı Elitok and Straubhaar Figure 1: Remittances to Turkey, 1974–2009, Million USD 135 Figure 2: Remittances and FDI to Turkey, 1988– 2008, Billion USD 136 Figure 3: Interest Rate (%) and Tax (Million Euro) for FXA and SFX 152 Figure 4: Tax Applied to Remittances, 1987–2004, Percentage Change 153 Figure 5: Comparison of Interest Rates Applied to Remittances, Percentage 154 Figure 6: Remitting Behavior in Crisis Periods, 1992–2009, Monthly Million USD 155 Pusch Figure 1: Map of Global Cities According to GaWC 2008 168 Figure 2: Foreign Direct Investments in Turkey in Million USD (1995–2009) 177 Aydın Figure 1: Emigration of Germans from Germany 200 Figure 2: Emigration of Medical Doctors from Germany 200 Figure 3: Net Migration from Germany 210 Figure 4: Immigration from Germany to Turkey 210 Figure 5: Emigration of Turkish Citizens from Germany 211 Paçacı Elitok and Straubhaar Figure 1: Per Capita GDP (in Purchasing Power Parities USD) in Turkey and Germany, 1980 to 2008 261 Figure 2: Simulation of the Gap in Per Capita GDP (in Purchasing Power Parities USD) between Turkey and Germany, 2008 to 2050, under the Assumption of Different Annual Growth Rates for the GDP 262 List of Tables Kirişçi Table 1: Applications under 1994 Regulation in Turkey (1995–2010) 71 Table 2: Resettlement out of Turkey by Country of Origin and Country of Settlement 72 Erder and Kaşka Table 1: Arrival of Foreigners in Turkey 117 Table 2: Reasons for the Arrival of Foreigners in Turkey 118 Table 3: Foreigners Living with a Residence Permit 119 Table 4: Total Number of Illegal Migrants and Human Smugglers Apprehended in Turkey 119 Table 5: Some Indicators on the Turkish Labor Market (2009) 121 Pusch Table 1: Residence Permits in Turkey (2000–2008) 170 Table 2: Asylum Applications in Turkey (1997−2008) 172 Table 3: Four Ideal Types of Migration 181 Acknowledgement This book is produced as part of the Marie Curie Research Training Network on “Transnationality of Migrants”, TOM, which is funded by the European Com- mission through the Human Resources and Mobility action of its Sixth Frame- work (MRTN-CT-2006) under grant agreement No. 035873. The views expressed in this publication are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not neces- sarily reflect the views of the European Commission. We would like to thank the contributors for their valuable efforts to make the completion of this edited volume possible. We are very grateful to (ex-) Senior Programme Officer Anna Pietka at the Centre for Economic Policy Re- search (CEPR) for supporting us. We would like to thank Daria Braun and Dr. Yaşar Aydın for helping at the earlier workshop organization. We appreciated the collaboration of our partners, the TurkeiEuropaZen- trum (TEZ) and the Transatlantic Academy. We would also like to tender our thanks to Alessandro Gatto who was so kind to share his award-winning cartoon entitled “Migrant” as the front page of our book. We are very grateful to all of our colleagues at Hamburg Institute of Inter- national Economics (HWWI) and the University of Hamburg who provided en- couragement. Special thanks to Elzbieta Linke for her invaluable efforts in the publishing process of this book. Introduction Seçil Paçacı Elitok and Thomas Straubhaar Two things have inspired us to edit a volume on migration, Turkey and the European Union (EU). Firstly, the year 2011 is the 50th anniversary of the bi-lateral agreement between Turkey and Germany on labor recruitment in 1961. In half a century, enormous political and economic changes took place both in Germany and Turkey. Thanks to the so-called “Guest-Workers” Programs, the labor shortage of Germany during the reconstruction and recovery period after World War II has been met by a migrant labor force. On the other hand, it suited very well the excess labor problem of Turkey. For Turkey, there were two main premises behind the bilateral agreements. First, migrants were expected to return with new skills, which would have had positive externalities on the labor market. Second, remittances of workers were expected to generate productive invest- ment- and employment-creating activities. The history of Turkish emigration, which started more than half a century ago, has disappointed these expecta- tions from the Turkish point of view in two ways. On the one hand, remit- tances of Turkish migrants did not render the hope for the economic impulse. They remained a tool for financing the balance of payments deficits but they did not turn into employment-creating investments. On the other hand, the transfer of the return of the migrants’ skills did not take place. On Germany’s side, from an economic point of view, labor market shortages were relaxed and the migrant labor force contributed to the economic boom tremendously. Yet, Germany ended up with an unintended permanent migration and no coherent integration policy. Initially, the agreement between Germany and Turkey meant a temporary migration, yet many migrants ended up being permanent residents. The agreement with Turkey came to an end in 1973 with an expecta- tion that the guest-workers would return. However, after the 1970s, migration 12 Seçil Paçacı Elitok and Thomas Straubhaar trends to Germany and other European countries continued and took different forms such as family unification, asylum seeking, refugee movements and ir- regular migration. Secondly, in order to increase the consistency of the individual contribu- tions to the book, we organized an international workshop on “Migration Po- tentials from and to Turkey” at the Hamburg Institute of International Econom- ics (HWWI) on January 12, 2010. This workshop was supported by the EU Marie Curie Research Training Networks on the “Transnationality of Migrants” (TOM).1 The idea of the workshop was to bring scholars from research centers, mainly specialized in migration research, to exchange