CHAPTER 11 Media and Culture Mark P. Orbe Western Michigan University The “Reality” of Media Effects Journey Through Chapter 11 Sightseeing: On your journey, you will visit basic concepts related to media and culture that reflect social scientific and social construction perspectives. After a discussion of types of media and various media theories, the chapter will offer you reality television and its representations and constructions of various cultures in order to further examine these theories. Media effects and media literacy are also discussed. Souvenir: After your journey, you will be a better informed media consumer and media critic aware of various theories through which to view and understand the media to which you are exposed daily and its relation to culture. The media is a powerful presence in people’s lives. Within the field of communication, media is the term used to refer to the particular medium used to deliver a message to a large, anonymous, diverse audience (Pearce, 2009a). Media studies involve research on media effects, which refer to the influence that the media has on audiences, and media representations, which are portrayals of various cultural groups. At the core of social con- struction is the idea that there is no such thing as objective reality (Pearce, 1995). Instead, scholars who advocate for this foundation stress that all knowledge is historically and culturally specific (Allen, 2005). Media, as a powerful social system, plays an important role in creating a person’s sense of reality (Gergen, 1999). Even those persons who closely monitor their media consumption are not immune to media effects. Media consumption 235 236 PART III NAVIGATING INTER/CULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN A COMPLEX WORLD Photo 11.1 Did you ever feel like a celebrity? Due to international media representations, children unaccustomed to seeing non-Japanese foreigners or gaijin may treat them like celebrities. In this photo, a U.S. American is asked for his autograph by a group of children happy to meet him on a bus. Copyright 2010 Anastacia Kurylo. refers to what and how much media you are exposed to. The problem is that a lot of the messages that people get from the media are taken in unconsciously. People may think that they can be exposed to the media without being influenced by it, but this seems to be an impossible thing to do. The first step in recognizing the role that the media plays in your life is to take inventory of your own media consumption. Think about a “normal” day. Given the hectic nature of many students’ lives while in school, it may be helpful to list a normal day when attending and not attending college. First, list the number of hours you spend each day watching televi- sion. Within this figure, be sure to include time typically spent watching DVDs and time spent watching television shows or movies online. Next, add the number of hours spent listening to music, reading books, newspapers, and magazines, surfing the Internet, and so forth. Second, conduct a mental inventory of how different cultural groups, such as Middle Easterners, Chapter 11 Media and Culture 237 senior citizens, people with disabilities, or persons who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgendered (LGBT), are portrayed in various media forms. Do you notice any patterns? This simple, two-step process is a good point of reflection in terms of understanding how the media influences our perceptions of others. This chapter focuses on the role that media plays in terms of inter/cultural communica- tion. First, you are introduced to a general overview of media concepts and terms. Second, a brief explanation of different media theories is offered. In order to provide insight into one specific type of media from multiple theoretical perspectives, the third section applies these concepts and theories to different examples of reality television in the United States (Orbe, 1998, 2008; Orbe & Hopson, 2002). Last, the chapter concludes by explaining what media literacy is, and how it is an important set of skills to negotiate media influences. REFLECT 11.1: Based on your own inventory, were you surprised at how much you are exposed to different media forms? How has your use of media changed over time? What, if any, impact do you think these images have on how you feel about yourself and others? MEDIA Most people immediately think of television when they hear the word media; however, there are many different forms of mediums. Traditionally, media was comprised of a few different types of industries: printed media, recordings, radio, movies, and television. However, recent technological advances—including the increased use of computers—have created easy access to various mass media mediums. In this regard, lines between interpersonal and mass communication have been blurred (Pearce, 2009a). The following section provides brief descriptions of traditional media genres including printed media, recordings, movies, radio, and television. As you read each of these sections, remember what many inter/cultural com- munication scholars (e.g., Squires, 2009) believe: Media images are an important source of information for people especially in terms of cultural groups with whom they may not have frequent, meaningful interactions. In other words, over time, each of these media sources individually and collectively works to shape your perceptions of others, and directly or indi- rectly, your communication interactions. Printed Media Printed media is the term used to refer to books, newspapers, and magazines. This type of mass media is the oldest. Scholars have traced the history of print media back to over 4,500 years ago when various religious, legal, and personal narratives were published on clay tab- lets. Although the earliest books were limited to the elite members of society, technological advances like the printing press allowed the medium to enter popular culture with increasing influence (McLuhan, 1962). 238 PART III NAVIGATING INTER/CULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN A COMPLEX WORLD Photo 11.2 Well intentioned or offensive? Sometimes behaviors motivated by the best intentions can be construed as offensive. For example, in this picture the Spanish men’s Olympic basketball team poses, pre-Beijing Olympics, for an advertisement in a Spanish magazine. Newspapers, like books, were an early form of mass communication. Dating back to the first century, newspapers moved from elite usage to mass consumption over time. Although many people are moving away from traditional consumption to reading news online, news- papers continue to be a central source of information. Magazines also have an impressive history. Within the United States, the first magazine can be traced to the 1740s. As the indus- trial revolution developed, so did the number of magazines. By 1900, more than 5,000 differ- ent magazines were being published in the United States. Today, a variety of magazines are available including those specifically aimed at women and men, sports fans, professionals, families, youth, and different cultural groups. Recordings In 1877, Thomas Edison invented a “talking machine” that allowed him to hear his rendition of “Mary Had a Little Lamb” repeated back to him. His invention set in motion the development of a powerful medium of mass communication. Early recordings have little similarity, in terms of quality, to the digital processes used today. However, the principal concept remains largely the same: Use technology to produce audio images for mass consumption. Most people immediately think about various types of music that have been made popular through recordings. However, other mass mediated messages—like many of Martin Luther King Jr.’s civil rights speeches in the 1960s—were also distributed to mass audiences through this medium. Chapter 11 Media and Culture 239 Movies The history of motion (moving) pictures can also be traced back to the 19th century inven- tions of Thomas Edison. Even before the talking motion-picture era exploded in the 1930s and 1940s, one film powerfully illustrated the impact that this form of mass media could have on the larger society. In 1915, one of the first full-length films of its kind, Birth of a Nation, was released to critical acclaim. However, in terms of race relations, the film was criticized for its promotion of African American racial stereotypes. The movie industry has long represented a billion dollar capital venture; however, it has also remained a prominent source of mass mediated images that arguably reinforce existing cultural stereotypes of underrepresented groups (Jackson, 2006; Squires, 2009). Radio In 1901, Guglielmo Marconi sent wireless sound across the Atlantic Ocean. This initial break- through was followed by successful voice transmission several years later and the creation of the first toll station, which charged advertisers for airtime, going on the air in 1922. From the outset, radio met important cultural needs. It provided a medium for political leaders, like President Franklin D. Roosevelt, to communicate about important issues directly to the U.S. American public. Radio also served as a key source for entertainment including electronic vaudeville, situation comedies, and soap operas. Today, radio continues to function as an influential source of information and en - ter tainment in many Take a Side Trip: cultures. With ad­­ vanced technology If you would like to read more about related issues, visit (e.g., computers, sat- Appendix B: Local Culture Explored Through Discourse ellites), the influence Analysis. of radio has remained significant. Television The story of television dates back to the 1920s and 1930s. During the earlier years, many television shows were adopted from radio; these included different quiz shows, soap operas, and situation comedies. Unlike radio, however, television did not start with experimental, noncommercial stations. Television began with established networks supported by advertis- ing sponsors. Like other media forms, television initially was primarily used by a small (wealthy) segment of society.