University of Groningen Jihadism and Suicide Attacks Nanninga, Pieter IMPORTANT NOTE: You are advised to consult the publisher's version (publisher's PDF) if you wish to cite from it. Please check the document version below. Document Version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Publication date: 2014 Link to publication in University of Groningen/UMCG research database Citation for published version (APA): Nanninga, P. (2014). Jihadism and Suicide Attacks: al-Qaeda, al-Sahab and the Meanings of Martyrdom. s.n. Copyright Other than for strictly personal use, it is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons). The publication may also be distributed here under the terms of Article 25fa of the Dutch Copyright Act, indicated by the “Taverne” license. More information can be found on the University of Groningen website: https://www.rug.nl/library/open-access/self-archiving-pure/taverne- amendment. Take-down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Downloaded from the University of Groningen/UMCG research database (Pure): http://www.rug.nl/research/portal. For technical reasons the number of authors shown on this cover page is limited to 10 maximum. Download date: 29-09-2021 Jihadism and Suicide Attacks al-Qaeda, al-Sahab and the Meanings of Martyrdom Pieter Nanninga Cover design: Anna Woldring Cover photograph: still from al-Sahab, Winds of Paradise: Part 1, 20" Printing: CPI Koninklijke Wöhrmann ISBN 978-90-367-7040-8 (printed version) ISBN 978-90-367-7045-3 (electronic version) © Copyright 2014 Pieter Gerhardus Theodorus Nanninga Jihadism and Suicide Attacks al-Qaeda, al-Sahab and the Meanings of Martyrdom PhD thesis to obtain the degree of PhD at the University of Groningen on the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. E. Sterken and in accordance with the decision by the College of Deans. This thesis will be defended in public on Monday 16 June 2014 at 12.45 hours by Pieter Gerhardus Theodorus Nanninga born on 29 January 1981 in Leens Supervisor Prof. J.N. Bremmer Assessment committee Prof. H.T. Bakker Prof. W.J. van Bekkum Prof. H.G. Kippenberg CONTENTS Acknowledgements 5 Glossary 7 Transliteration and references 10 PART I: INTRODUCTION 1 Introduction 13 1.1 ‘The essence of religion’ 13 1.2 Studying jihadism and suicide attacks 15 1.3 Jihadism 17 1.3.1 Labelling jihadism 17 1.3.2 Approaching jihadism 19 1.4 Suicide attacks 22 1.4.1 Labelling suicide attacks 22 1.4.2 Approaching suicide attacks 23 1.5 Al-Sahab’s martyrdom videos 25 1.5.1 Al-Sahab 25 1.5.2 Martyrdom videos 26 1.6 Argument and overview of this study 29 2 Conceptual framework 31 2.1 Social movement theory 31 2.1.1 New social movements 31 2.1.2 Social movements, culture and identity 33 2.1.3 Social movements and media 35 2.2 Collective actions and performances 38 2.2.1 Collective actions 38 2.2.2 Performances 38 2.3 Framing 41 PART II: JIHADISM AND AL-QAEDA 3 Jihadism as social movement 45 3.1 Jihadism: a history 45 3.1.1 From Jaji to Manhattan 45 3.1.2 From Manhattan to Abbottabad 48 3.2 Jihadism: participants and organisational structure 50 3.3 Jihadist ideology 52 3.3.1 Ibn Taymiyya 52 3.3.2 Wahhabism and Salafism 53 3.3.3 The Muslim Brotherhood and Qutbism 54 3.3.4 The global jihad 55 3.4 Heterodox traditions 57 2 | Contents 3.5 Jihadism as a globalised social movement 60 3.6 Conclusion 62 4 Jihadism and media 65 4.1 New media and Muslim movements 65 4.2 Jihadist media 67 4.2.1 From al-Jihad to Al Jazeera 67 4.2.2 Al-Sahab 69 4.2.3 From azzam.com to YouTube 73 4.3 The mediatisation of jihadism 76 4.3.1 New media and the global jihad 76 4.3.2 New media and grassroots jihadists 79 4.4 Conclusion 82 Part III: SUICIDE ATTACKS 5 Orchestrating violence 87 5.1 Suicide attacks: a historical sketch 87 5.1.1 From Beirut to 9/11 87 5.1.2 9/11 and beyond 90 5.2 The tactical value of suicide attacks 93 5.3 The symbolic value of suicide attacks 95 5.3.1 Staging and timing 95 5.3.2 The 2000 USS Cole bombing 96 5.3.3 The 9/11 attacks 97 5.3.4 The 2003 Riyadh bombings 99 5.3.5 The 2008 Danish Embassy bombing 102 5.4 Conclusion 103 6 Performing violence 105 6.1 Martyrdom 105 6.1.1 Early Islamic traditions 105 6.1.2 Modern reinterpretations 108 6.2 Suicide attacks as martyrdom operations 111 6.2.1 Theological justifications 111 6.2.2 Suicide bombers as martyrs 113 6.3 Ritualised violence 116 6.3.1 The ritual process 116 6.3.2 Abandoning earthly life 117 6.3.3 The living martyr 119 6.3.4 Martyrs in Paradise 123 6.4 Farewell messages 124 6.4.1 Fighting for the umma 124 6.4.2 Longing for martyrdom 126 6.4.3 God’s knights 128 6.5 Conclusion 129 Contents | 3 Part IV: MARTYRDOM VIDEOS 7 The state of the umma 133 7.1 Establishing authority 134 7.1.1 Branding al-Sahab 134 7.1.2 Spokesperson of jihadism 136 7.2 The diagnosis 138 7.2.1 Humiliation and disgrace 138 7.2.2 A cosmic battle 140 7.3 The enemies 143 7.3.1 ‘Crusaders and Jews’ 143 7.3.2 ‘Apostate rulers’ 146 7.3.3 ‘The scholars of the palace’ 149 7.4 ‘The slumbering umma’ 150 7.5 Conclusion 151 8 The solution 153 8.1 Da‘wa and politics 153 8.2 Migration, preparation and ribat 155 8.3 Jihad 157 8.4 ‘Martyrdom operations’ 159 8.5 The meanings of martyrdom 162 8.5.1 Honour and dignity 162 8.5.2 Sacrifice and purification 165 8.5.3 Victory 168 8.6 Conclusion 169 9 The call to arms 171 9.1 Facilitating humiliation 171 9.2 Offering guidance 174 9.2.1 Authorities 174 9.2.2 Role models 176 9.3 Offering a community 179 9.3.1 The umma’s vanguard 179 9.3.2 The zenith of jihadism 181 9.3.3 Defining jihadism 182 9.4 Offering empowerment 184 9.5 Conclusion 186 Conclusion 189 Appendix I: Al-Sahab’s martyrdom videos 192 Appendix II: A Note on methodology 195 4 | Contents Bibliography 197 Primary sources: texts 197 Primary sources: audio and video recordings 199 Websites and forums 202 Secondary sources 204 Government reports and documents 219 Nederlandse samenvatting 220 Curriculum vitae 224 CD-ROM Al-Sahab’s martyrdom videos: English texts Al-Sahab’s martyrdom videos: Video files Acknowledgements The idea for this book emerged during a conversation over coffee that I had with Fred Leemhuis in late 2006. His remarks on the visuals of Bin Laden’s video appearances in the years after 9/11 inspired me to delve into the world of online jihadist videos, which eventually led to this book on al-Qaeda’s suicide attacks and al- Sahab’s martyrdom videos. After I had finished the manuscript and sent it to Fred, he replied to me in an email some days later: ‘It is a pleasure to read, but not very cheerful – if you will forgive the paradox.’ From time to time, this paradox has also been applicable to the writing of this book. In the six years I have worked on this study, hundreds of suicide attacks have been carried out, killing thousands of people, mostly innocent men, women and children. But it was not only the victims of jihadist suicide attacks that made this research a gloomy undertaking at times, it was also the individual stories of the people I studied: often ordinary youths who had become frustrated by the predicament of the people in Afghanistan, Iraq, Palestine and elsewhere, and were convinced that their actions would contribute to the improvement of the situation of their brothers and sisters in need. In some cases, I must admit, I was struck by the fate of these men, most of whom would not see the age of thirty. Without justifying, let alone condoning their actions, I hope that my struggles in dealing with them will contribute towards a better understanding of these people and their unimaginable deeds. At the same time, it has been a great pleasure to work on this book. The subject is not only disturbing, but also highly fascinating. Moreover, my research enabled me to work with many companionable and stimulating people, to whom I owe thanks. First of all, I am most grateful to the Faculty of Theology and Religious Studies at the University of Groningen, that gave me the opportunity to conduct my research in an enjoyable and stimulating environment. My fellow PhD students, and particularly the inhabitants of our ‘Islam room’, have been highly significant in this respect. I have greatly profited from many conversations with Marjo Buitelaar, Yme Kuiper and Fred Leemhuis during the almost ten years I have spent at the faculty, and I hope that this book reflects some of their invaluable insights.