Cultural Services Branch Government of Yukon Hudež\ Hudaªn Series Occasional Papers in Yukon History No. 4 HISTORICAL CLIMATOLOGY OF THE SOUTHERN YUKON: PALEOCLIMATIC RECONSTRUCTION USING DOCUMENTARY SOURCES FROM 1842-1852 Heather Tompkins Yukon Tourism and Culture Cultural Services Branch Elaine Taylor, Minister 2007 HISTORICAL CLIMATOLOGY OF THE SOUTHERN YUKON Paleoclimatic Reconstruction using Documentary Sources from 1842-1852 by HEATHER TOMPKINS A thesis submitted to the Department of Geography in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Queen's University Kingston, Ontario, Canada May 2006 Copyright © Heather Lee Tompkins, 2006 Abstract Paleoclimatic research in Canada has largely focused on the use of physical proxy data, such as lake sediments, tree rings and ice cores. However, weather information from historical documents also has the potential to provide a wealth of climatic data. Historical documents offer many advantages over traditional physical proxies, including high temporal resolution and accurate dating. Journals from three Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) posts (Frances Lake, Pelly Banks and Fort Selkirk) in the southern Yukon Territory were analysed for weather. Climatic data were present in two forms: direct data (i.e. references to temperature, precipitation, wind and cloud conditions) and indirect data (i.e. ice activity, biological, human impacts and miscellaneous remarks). A hierarchical coding scheme was applied to the journals, allowing for frequency counts of conditions. Weather information from the three journals was used to construct a seasonal warm/cold index for the period 1842-1852. The most common feature during the historical period was the dominance of mild winters throughout all years, which may be linked to the end of the Little Ice Age in the southern Yukon. As well, 1849 suffered from a six-month cold period. Historical temperature readings from the Frances Lake journals for the period December 1842 to May 1844 provided an alternative data source for verification of the index. Comparison of the historical temperature record to modern climate normal station data revealed that at least one of the months on record (February 1844) was warmer than any February from the 1971-2000 normal period. The number of precipitation days per month reported at the three posts was well below normal in the majority of cases. However, it is argued that this difference is due to a lack of transcription rather than a lack of occurrence. Examination of the journals indicates that the weather did play a relatively important role in the posts’ activities, at times hindering efforts to become self- sufficient. Frost activity during the growing season plagued farming operations and cold, windy winters hindered hunting. However, the weather was not the main reason that the posts had difficulties becoming self-sufficient. Unfamiliarity with the region and inadequate supplies from the HBC were the main culprits. i Acknowledgements The idea for this thesis came from Ernest Shackleton’s epic narrative “South: The Endurance Expedition” (1914-1916) which chronicled his crews’ struggle for survival in inhospitable Antarctic waters. I found the book fascinating and full of detailed information on the environment, particularly the weather. This book gave me the idea of doing research that combined my interest in exploration literature with my education and experience in geography and climate change. In the end, my study area shifted from the extreme south to the Canadian North. The Hudson’s Bay Company journals became my historical documents of choice and the Yukon Territory was substituted for Antarctica because it was one of the last regions to be explored in Canada. This thesis is the culmination of independent studying and exploration into academia. It has given me the opportunity to grow more fluent in northern Canadian history and develop a passion for historical research that is blended with quantitative methods. At times, the work seemed frustrating and pointless, particularly at the half-waypoint, which I suspect is common in most graduate work. But I can safely say that I am more interested in the subject now, at the completion of this work, than I was at the beginning. There are many people I would like to thank for their assistance during my graduate studies. My supervisor, Robert Gilbert, taught me to become very self- sufficient by letting me find my own way in the research field. His comments on the work and his broad knowledge of a myriad of topics were always helpful. I am also grateful to him for giving me the opportunity to take part in a once-in-a-lifetime expedition to Antarctica. It is a trip I will never forget and it allowed me to visit the icy Antarctic waters that Shackleton so grippingly wrote about. As well, I would like to thank the geography main office staff, Kathy, Shelia, Sharon and Joan. Their assistance has been instrumental in my successful navigation of Queen’s bureaucracy. I would also like to thank the professors for whom I have been a Teaching Assistant in the department. Prior to coming to Queen’s, I was adamant in my lack of desire to teach. However, my teaching experiences at Queen’s have been the most surprising and rewarding part my graduate stay. I have developed a strong passion for teaching at the higher education level and I appreciate the opportunity to have worked with professors who have all helped shape my skills and opinions regarding the field. The staff members at the National Archives of Canada, the Hudson’s Bay Company Archives and the Yukon Archives were all incredibly generous with their time and assistance. In particular, I would like to thank the Yukon Archives’ staff, who allowed me to become a permanent fixture at the archives during my stay in Whitehorse. Clara Rutherford was especially friendly and I thank her for introducing me to the Kopper Kettle restaurant! My office-mates, Brock and Kristie (aka “Pants”), who are also at various stages in their masters research, have given me some perspective on graduate studies and have provided a well-needed sounding board. Prior to their arrival, I was the sole occupant of my office and their company has been much appreciated! Last but not least, I would like to thank my family for their support during my studies. My parents, both trained in the field of education, have instilled in me a strong desire to learn. Their support in helping me move to Kingston was very appreciated and their visits have provided much-needed distractions. My father proved himself to be a capable field assistant in the Yukon – his ability to navigate forests without a compass or GPS has made me believe he is a “geographer in hiding”. My mother’s ability to pack an arsenal of camping gear into two bags amazes me still to this day. I am also grateful for my parents’ restraint in asking the ii dreaded question: “How long until you are done?” (at least until the last four months of my program). I am thankful to my sister, Heidi, and brother, Nathan, for giving me a glimpse into their lives as full-time employees in the field of sales. It has shown me that, at times, academia and business are not all that different and that many of my academic skills are transferable to the real world. Their ability to occasionally forget my field of study or degree program has shown me that school itself is not the most important thing; rather, it is what you do with that knowledge. iii Table of Contents Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… i Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… iii List of tables ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… vi List of figures …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… vii Chapter 1: Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 1 Chapter 2: Literature Review …………………………………………………………………………………… 11 Chapter 3: Methodology …………………………………………………………………………………………… 20 Part 1: Establishing Reliability ……………………………………………………………………… 20 Part 2: Coding Scheme ………………………………………………………………………………… 28 Part 3: Quantification …………………………………………………………………………………… 41 Part 4: Identification of Normal and Extreme Conditions ………………………… 44 Part 5: Comparison to Modern Record ………………………………………………………… 49 Chapter 4: Results ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 55 Chapter 5: Discussion ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 72 Chapter 6: Conclusion and Recommendations ………………………………………………………… 94 References: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 97 Appendix 1: All sources consulted ………………………………………………………………………… 104 Appendices 2a-c: Transcribed journal entries: 2a) Frances Lake: Example ……………………………………………………………… 112 2a) Frances Lake: All transcribed entries …………………… see attached CD 2b) Pelly Banks ………………………………………………………………………………… 114 2b) Pelly Banks: All transcribed entries …………………… see attached CD 2c) Fort Selkirk ………………………………………………………………………………… 115 2c) Fort Selkirk: All transcribed entries …………………… see attached CD Appendices 3 (a-c): Monthly subcode totals: 3) Example of monthly subcode totals - Fort Selkirk …………………… 117 3a) Monthly subcodes – Frances Lake ………………………… see attached CD 3b) Monthly subcodes – Pelly Banks …………………………… see attached CD iv 3c) Monthly subcodes – Fort Selkirk …………………………… see attached CD Appendices 4a-d: Monthly, seasonal and annual direct subcode averages: 4a) Frances Lake ……………………………………………………………………………… 119 4b) Pelly Banks ………………………………………………………………………………… 120 4c) Fort Selkirk ………………………………………………………………………………… 121 4d) All posts ……………………………………………………………………………………… 122 Appendices 5a-d: