The Royal African Society The Establishment of Neo-Mahdism in the Western Sudan, 1920-1936 Author(s): Awad Al-Sid Al-Karsani Source: African Affairs, Vol. 86, No. 344 (Jul., 1987), pp. 385-404 Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of The Royal African Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/722749 Accessed: 07/11/2010 21:35 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=oup. 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Oxford University Press and The Royal African Society are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to African Affairs. http://www.jstor.org THE ESTABLISHMENT OF NEO-MAHDISM IN THE WESTERN SUDAN, 19201936 AWADAL-SID AL_KARSANI THE RESURRECTIONOF the Mahdist movement in the twentieth century following the crushing defeat of the Mahdist state by the Anglo-Egyptian re-conquest of Sudan has been one of the most extraordinary features of modern Sudanese politics, as well as a unique form of Islamic revival. The messianic revolt of Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi, which overthrew Turco- Egyptian rule and ended with the death of General Gordon at Khartoum in 1885, 1 was not only a ma jor chapter in Sudanese history, but one of the great uprisings of Muslims in modern times. As a result Sudan's British con- querors remained suspicious of the possible recrudescence of Mahdism, even though they had obtained a crushing victory at the battle of Omdurman in 1898, and they kept a watchful eye not only on Sudan's Muslim peoples, but possible developments right across the Sahel. Following the re-conquest the remaining Mahdists were carefully moni- tored, and the Mahdi's surviving son, born posthumously, Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi, lived quietly under supervision in Omdurman. However, in the First World War he was encouraged by the government to emerge from obscurity and rally his father's old supporters as a counter to the call of the Ottoman Sultan for a jihad against the British throughout the Middle East, because Mahdism was associated with anti-Turkish sentiment in Sudan. As a reward for his loyalty he was allowed after the war to develop his estates at Aba Island in the White Nile, where his father had first declared himself to be the Mahdi, with the authorities intending that his commercial activities would deflect him from any religious or political ambitions. However, Abd al-Rahman soon showed himself to be an acute observer of both the political and religious scene. He set about organizing a revival of Mahdism, but not one which would attempt a revolt against the all-conquering British, rather it would be a peaceful movement whose influence would be such that the authorities would have to collaborate with it. Eventually, it was widely believed, he sought to become King of the Sudan, like other British-backed Middle Eastern monarchs. As a result of this abandonment of revolution- ary aims and expectations on the part of its followers, the movement Abd al-Rahman established has been dubbed neo-Mahdist, for it built on the beliefs of the old Mahdists though now directed toward very different goals to those of the nineteenth century revolt. 1 The authoris lecturerin PoliticalScience, University of Khartoum. 1. Peter Woodward,'In the footsteps of Gordon:the Sudan Governmentand the rise of SayyidSir Abd al-Rahmanal-Mahdi, 1915-1935', African Affairs 84 (1985),pp. 39-51. 385 386 AFRICANAFPAIRS in turning to the Abd al-Rahman also built on his father's achievements al-Mahdi had originally westernSudan for support. Muhammad Ahmad his declaration that he comefrom Dongola in the far north, but following of Darfur and wasthe true Mahdi, it was to the western Sudan provinces where he rallied the Kordofanthat he had turned in search of support, and In turn Abd armywhich defeated Hick's Pasha and captured Khartoum. recruits for his neo- al-Rahmanrealised that the main body of potential there by the sense of Mahdistmovement also lay in the west, but he was faced Mahdist state, and a politicalconfusion following the overthrow of the and semi-nomadic resultingreligious turmoil among the region's nomadic in the western Sudan peoples. In establishing his new Mahdist movement contending forces, afterthe First World War Abd al-Rahman faced three sufiorders. Britishofficials, individualfakis (holymen), and established to terms with the The Sudan government was aware of the need to come conquered peoples, but variousmanifestations of popular Islam among its inherent in the religion, constantlyfeared the dangers it regarded as virtually by the Mahdi's andwhich it was believed had been amply demonstrated the strategy of his neo- revolt. As a result Abd al-Rahman's ambition and his loyalty in the First Mahdistmovement posed a dilemma. He had shown intention and capacity WorldWar and afterwards begun to demonstrate his was regarded by the toextend his neo-Mahdist movement in the west, which both because of the British as the most dangerous area for Muslim revolt early years of British Mahdi's uprising and numerous local uprisings of the to extend its influ- administration as well. If neo-Mahdism was allowed movement, or might it ence unchecked would it remain a loyal collaborative threat than the pose in time a more concerted and thus more dangerous existing Muslim forces? had to contend in It was not only the authorities with which neo-Mahdism there, which represen- the west, but the other Islamic forces already at work not just in Sudan but in ted preceding phases in the development of Islam, was that of the much of Muslim Africa. The oldest of these traditions to the region from individualfakis (holymen) who had first brought Islam century revolt of the late Middle Ages onwards. Following the nineteenth were strong in the Ahmad al-Mahdi, messianic and millenarian expectations Mahdism or other west, and such fakis, who often borrowed ideas from both before and after sects, were associated with a number of local uprisings the First World War. orders (turaq,sing. Sudan had also been penetrated by a number of the sufi Sunni Muslims, tariqa) which were widespread organizations among outside Sudan. The especially in rural areas, and most of which originated started in Morocco, and strongest in the west was the Tijaniyya which had as 1810. Following eventually came to Sudan via the western Sahel as early in west Africa in the the destruction of Hajj Umar al-Futti's Tijani states ESTABLISHMENTOF NEO-MADHISM IN THE WESTERN SUDAN 387 1860s many Tijani migratedeastwards and were particularlyinfluential in Darfur, and there were adherentsalso in northernKordofan. The inter- national characterof such turuqwas particularlyworrying for the Sudan governmentwhich thought that they might act as agents of hostile powers. It was just such a concern which had led to the rehabilitationof Abd al- Rahmanal-Mahdi in the First WorldWar; while in northernNigeria trouble with various Islamic groups in the same period was ascribedin part to the work of Germanagents from the neighbouringCameroons. (The Sudan governmentexchanged information with British colonial governmentson Islamicmatters, mainly with Nigeria.) Thus in seekingto build his neo-Mahdistmovement with backingin the west Abd al-Rahmanwas contendingnot only with the suspicions of the authorities, but other Islamic forces. Furthermorehe was seeking to extendthe influenceof his peacefuland collaborativemovement in what the governmentregarded as the most dangerousregion of the northernSudan, with its unsophisticated and potentially 'fanatical' population amongst whommessianic and millenarianexpectations were rife. In orderto under- standthe successof neo-Mahdismit is necessaryto see how Abd al-Rahman succeededin the face of these contendingIslamic forces and aspirations. TheMessianic fakis The defeat of the Mahdist army at Omdurmanin 1898 did not quell British fears that messianismwas still alive in Sudan, and that other indi- vidualfakis like MuhammadAhmad would in turn claim to be the Mahdi, or his successor, and lead further revolts. Sir Reginald Wingate, the governor-general,wrote in 1908 that 'no doubt there is plenty of latent Mahdismand until the generationborn and brought up in thatfaith has died out we shall be subject to these outbreaks'.2 His fears were particularly borneout by the frequencyof revoltsin westernSudan, where officials were alwayson the alertand tryingto assessthe danger. In northernKordofan the local administratorswere worriedby the many individualfakiswho settled amongthe tribes of the areapreaching Mahdist tenets and that the second coming of the prophet 'Isa (Jesus) was near. (Accordingto certain Muslim teaching the Mahdi will be followed by al- Dajjal, the anti-Christ,who will in turn be succeededby the second coming of Jesus, Nabi 'Isa.) The Meramrawere the largest tribal group who 'believed in MohammadAhmad as the true Mahdi'.3 Among the other tribes of the areathe local DC remarked:'I am afraidNorthern Kordofan is not entirelyfree from the Mahdisttaint.