FINAL REPORT Research to Support the Development of a Monitoring Programme for New or Emerging Marine Biotoxins in Shellfish in UK Waters FS513005 15th March 2014 Dr Wendy A. Higman, Cefas Dr Andrew Turner, Cefas Mrs Clothilde Baker, Cefas Mr Cowan Higgins, AFBI Ms Andrea Veszelovszki, SAMS Professor Keith Davidson, SAMS 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... 10 ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................. 12 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................... 16 CHAPTER 1 1. AN OVERVIEW OF THE EFSA OPINIONS ON NEW AND EMERGING TOXINS AND A CONSIDERATION OF THE OPINIONS IN THE LIGHT OF RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN TESTING METHODS AND TOXICOLOGICAL DATA 1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 23 1.2 CYCLIC IMINES: SPIROLIDES (SPX); GYMNODIMINES (GYM); PINNATOXINS (PNTX); PTERIATOXINS (PTTX) ..................................................................................................... 25 1.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 25 1.2.2 Occurrence of CI-group toxins ................................................................................................. 26 1.2.3 Methods of Analysis ................................................................................................................. 27 1.2.4 Table 1. Summary of methods for CIs ...................................................................................... 29 1.2.5 Exposure Assessment ............................................................................................................... 30 1.2.6 Toxicokinetics ........................................................................................................................... 31 1.2.7 Mode of Action ........................................................................................................................ 31 1.2.8 Effects in Animals and Relative Toxicity ................................................................................... 31 1.2.9 Relative Potency of Analogues ................................................................................................. 33 1.2.10 Observations in Humans ........................................................................................................ 33 1.2.11 Hazard Characterisation......................................................................................................... 33 1.2.12 Risk Characterisation ............................................................................................................. 34 1.2.13 Key Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 34 1.3 BREVETOXIN (BTX) .................................................................................................... 35 1.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 35 1.3.2 Occurrence of BTX-group toxins .............................................................................................. 36 1.3.3 Methods of Analysis ................................................................................................................. 36 1.3.4 Table 2. Summary of Methods for Brevetoxin ......................................................................... 38 1.3.5 Toxicokinetics ........................................................................................................................... 39 2 1.3.6 Mode of Action ........................................................................................................................ 39 1.3.7 Effects in Animals and Relative Toxicity ................................................................................... 40 1.3.8 Observations in Humans .......................................................................................................... 40 1.3.9 Hazard Characterisation........................................................................................................... 41 1.3.10 Key Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 41 1.4 PALYTOXIN ............................................................................................................... 42 1.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 42 1.4.2 Methods of Analysis ................................................................................................................. 43 1.4.3 Table 3. Summary of methods for PlTX ................................................................................... 47 1.4.4 Exposure Assessment ............................................................................................................... 49 1.4.5 Toxicity ..................................................................................................................................... 49 1.4.6 Observations in Humans .......................................................................................................... 50 1.4.7 Hazard Characterisation........................................................................................................... 51 1.4.8 Risk Characterisation ............................................................................................................... 52 1.4.9 Key Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 53 1.5 CIGUATOXIN (CTX) .................................................................................................... 54 1.5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 54 1.5.2 Occurrence of CTX-group toxins .............................................................................................. 55 1.5.3 Methods of Analysis ................................................................................................................. 55 1.5.4 Table 4. Summary of Methods for Ciguatoxin ......................................................................... 58 1.5.5 Human Consumption and Exposure ........................................................................................ 59 1.5.6 Toxicokinetics ........................................................................................................................... 59 1.5.7 Mode of Action ........................................................................................................................ 59 1.5.8 Effects in Animals and Relative Toxicity ................................................................................... 60 1.5.9 Observations in Humans .......................................................................................................... 60 1.5.10 Hazard Characterisation......................................................................................................... 61 1.5.11 Key Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 62 1.6 CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................... 63 CHAPTER 2 1. POTENTIAL NEW AND EMERGING TOXIN THREATS FOR UK WATERS- PHYTOPLANKTON 1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 66 3 1.2 CURRENT SHELLFISH TOXIN PRODUCING SPECIES IN THE UK ...................................... 67 1.3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE, CURRENT STATUS, AND RECENT CHANGES ....................... 68 1.3.1 Historical perspective............................................................................................................... 68 1.3.2 Current status of biotoxin producing phytoplankton species present in UK waters ............... 69 1.4 FACTORS THAT MAY INFLUENCE THE ABUNDANCE OR TOXICITY OF HAB SPECIES IN UK WATERS ......................................................................................................................... 73 1.4.1 Ballast Water Transfer ............................................................................................................. 73 1.4.2 Anthropogenic Nutrients (Inorganic) ....................................................................................... 76 1.4.3 Nutrient Ratios ......................................................................................................................... 77 1.4.4 Anthropogenic Nutrients (Organic) ......................................................................................... 78 1.4.5 Factors that may influence cell toxicity ................................................................................... 79 1.4.6 Fishing ...................................................................................................................................... 80 1.4.7 Climate Change .......................................................................................................................