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IhterDadkmal 8603514 Maluf, Ram ez Bahige JEAN ANTOINE NOLLET AND EXPERIMENTAL NATURAL PHILOSOPHY IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY FRANCE The University of Oklahoma Ph.D. 1985 University Microfilms Internetionel300 N. ze e b Road. Ann Arbor,Ml48106 Copyright 1985 by Maluf, Ramez Bahige All Rights Reserved PLEASE NOTE: In all cases this material has been filmed In the best possible way from the available copy. Problems encountered with this document have been identified herewith a check mark V Glossy photographs or pages. 2. Colored illustrations, paper or______ print 3. Photographs with dark background_____ 4. Illustrations are poor copy______ 5. Pages with black marks, not original copy. 6. Print shows through as there is text on both sides of page. 7. Indistinct, broken or small print on several pages 8. Print exceeds margin requirements______ 9. Tightly bound copy with print lost _______in spine 10. Computer printout pages with indistinct print. 11. 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Other______________________________ ___________________________ ___ University Microfilms International THE UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE JEAN ANTOINE NOLLET AND EXPERIMENTAL NATURAL PHILOSOPHY IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY FRANCE A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY By RAMEZ BAHIGE MALUF Norman, Oklahoma 1985 JEAN ANTOINE NOLLET AND EXPERIMENTAL NATURAL PHILOSOPHY IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY FRANCE A DISSERTATION APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE B . l ' à X t Z - ® 1985 Ramez Bahige Maluf All rights reserved PREFACE In my first year as a graduate I had an argument with a class­ mate over whether or not Nobel prize laureates in science would be con­ sidered the great scientists of our age by future historians. The discus­ sion revolved around these two points: If contemporaries were to decide what made for great scientific achievements and who was responsible for them, then historians would be deprived of the discretion of judging dif­ ferently. But, on the other hand, if historians disregarded the judge­ ment of contemporaries their narratives would run the risk of being ana­ chronistic . I have since then conquered most of my love for historical dilemmas, pseudo-dilemmas and "Great Scientists" theories of history. However, my initial interest in the Abbé Jean Antoine Nollet stemmed pre­ cisely from a desire to understand the reasons for the esteem he enjoyed in his lifetime, for I believed his physics to be too simple, his ideas commonsensical, and his diligence commendable but not the source of im­ portant scientific achievements. The more I looked into the matter the more I concurred with Voltaire's assessment of the Abbé: Nollet was not himself a great scientist but he knew more than great scientists of the past did. I hope that the following pages will justify this assessment. The reading copy of this dissertation was presented to members of the faculty of the History of Science Department at the University of iv Oklahoma in January of 1982 and defended the following month. I was asked then by the dissertation committee to make a few minor changes and corrections before submitting a final copy. One week later I flew back home to Beirut, Lebanon, believing I would send back the corrected ver­ sion in a few days, or a few weeks. In fact, it would be a few years before I did so. While it had taken me about fourteen months to prepare the reading copy, it was to take me over three years to turn it into a final copy. Throughout these three years Beirut offered a sharply dif­ ferent environment from Norman, Oklahoma, and I had many occasions to sorely miss the tranquility and wealth of resources available to me at the History of Science Collections during my student days. Because of these circumstances, literature relevant to the dis­ sertation published since 1982 is not, for the most part, incorporated into the dissertation. In translating passages from the French I have often opted for a literal rendering, preferring to sacrifice style rather than meaning. A recurring problem was the translation of the French word expérience. Eighteenth-century French writers did not have to distinguish between "experiment" and "experience" when they spoke of experimental physics, for the French word expérience may refer to both concepts, or either. When the distinction is not made in French, the translator into English has to force a certain interpretation sometimes judging "experiment" was meant and at others, "experience," I hope that on the numerous occa­ sions I have had to make this decision I was right more often than not. One of the pleasures the completion of the dissertation offers me is the opportunity to thank those whose help made a difference. I va would like first of all to express my appreciation to the members of the dissertation committee: Professors John Biro, David B. Kitts, Duane H. D. Roller, Thomas Smith, and Kenneth L. Taylor. I am grateful for their interest, patience, and suggestions. Professor Smith read more than one draft of some chapters which profited greatly from his perspicacious editorial pen. Professor Marcia Goodman, librarian in charge of the History of Science Collections, helped to solve many problems some of which appeared to me insurmountable. Her expert and kind help is acknowledged fondly. The chairman of my dissertation committee. Professor Taylor, offered precise and clear suggestions, constructive and inspiring cri­ ticisms. His adroit guidance was instrumental in the development of the thesis offered here. Putting the finishing touches on the dis­ sertation from Beirut would have been impossible without his patient help in Norman. I wish also to thank Professor Mary Jo Nye for her kind assis­ tance in checking some materials for my benefit at the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. Valli Powell's willingness to type this dissertation to help me meet a deadline is appreciated. My thanks also go to members of my family, Dalai, Zena and May for their financial and moral support. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PREFACE ...... ................... ........... ...... iv Chapter I. JEAN ANTOINE NOLLET (1700-1770) 1 II. NOLLET'S POSITION IN THE CARTESIAN-NEWTONIAN DEBATE . 27 III. NOLLET AND EXPERIMENTAL M E T H O D ............................... 80 IV. NOLLET AND ELECTRICITY ........................................ 115 V. CONCLUSION ...................................................... 163 APPENDIX 174 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................ 177 vil JEAN ANTOINE NOLLET AND EXPERIMENTAL NATURAL PHILOSOPHY IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY FRANCE RAMEZ BAHIGE MALUF ABSTRACT This dissertation examines the scientific career of the Abbé Jean Antoine Nollet (1700-1770) and attempts to throw some light on his work in the context of eighteenth-century physics. A central theme of the dissertation is that Nollet enjoyed the esteem of contemporary scientists and savants because he preached and practised a type of physics that was considered beyond controversy, believed to be grounded on observation, experiments and those truths of science around which scientists were agreed. Nollet also helped popularize experimental physics by building its instruments, designing experiments, and advancing theories based on them. His most important theoretical contribution was in the field of electricity— the eighteenth-century experimental science par excellence. The theory of electricity he presented in 1745 provides an illustration of his method and work. It was formulated to explain a vast array of experimental and observational data and it relied heavily on the senses? it also relied on Nollet's notion of a science built on non-controversial facts, a science of consensus. The theory can be seen as a methodical viii arrangement of those ideas about electricity shared by a large number of students of the field and the many observations he performed. Nollet saw his work as part of a collective process that pre­ supposed standardization of instruments and procedures.