Te Hokinga Mai O Ngā Tūpuna: Māori Perspectives of Repatriation and the Scientific Research of Ancestral Remains Amber Kiri Aranui A thesis in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Māori Studies Victoria University of Wellington 2018 Waerea waerea i raro i a Rangi e tū nei, Waerea waerea i runga i a Papa e takoto nei Waerea i runga i nga maru o wehi, Kia tū tangatanga mātaki e Tāne-pēpēke-o-te-wao, Whano whano haramai te toki, Haumi e, hui e, tāiki e! 2 Waiho kia tangi ahau ki taku tūpāpaku, Kāpā he uru ti e piki ake Let me weep for my dead, it is not like the head of the ti tree which when cut springs up again (Mead and Grove 2004: 418) 3 Abstract The repatriation of human remains has been the subject of much discussion and debate, especially since the 1990s. Since then, there has been a marked increase in the international literature relating to museums, indigenous peoples and repatriation; however, this literature is mainly written from the perspective of museums and universities. Although there has been some publication of the views on repatriation of indigenous communities there is a conspicuous absence of Māori perspectives in this literature. In particular, there is a lack of Māori voice on the repatriation of ancestral remains, as well as a lack of commentary on the so-called scientific research on ancestral remains that has taken place, and continues to take place, in universities, museums, and medical institutions around the world. This lack of indigenous perspective in the repatriation literature has resulted in mainstream assumptions about why indigenous communities, such as Māori, have been so active in repatriation activities over the last 25 years. The assumptions have tended to view the motives of indigenous peoples as politically motivated and even go as far as describing them as “activist” in nature rather than motivated by cultural beliefs and imperatives. This perceived view, as well as the views of many writers in the scientific and museum professions who do not agree with the repatriation of human remains back to origin communities because of their “loss to science” and therefore humankind, has prompted hotly contested debates concerning these issues. These contested views lead inevitably to the question of consent and whether the taking of skeletal remains from burial contexts to carry out ‘scientific’ research without consent is deemed ethical by today’s standards. The primary aim of this thesis is to document Māori perspectives on the repatriation of ancestral human remains and to understand the significance of Māori ancestral human remains for descendant communities. A secondary aim is to review some of the scientific research which has been carried out on Māori ancestral remains, and to identify the benefits, if any, of that research for descendant communities. 4 Mihi | Acknowledgement First and foremost, I want to thank my whānau, especially my daughter and mother, for supporting me through this journey, for giving me the space I need to just write, and for allowing me the freedom to follow my dreams. I would like to thank my supervisors Associate Professor Peter Adds and Dr Maria Bargh for all their time and support and for giving me the opportunity to write about something I am passionate about. To Terese McLeod and Jeremy Porima for being an incredible support system over the past five years, and for allowing me space to vent. To Dr Arapata Hakiwai and Sean Mallon for their time and advice throughout this process. To Martin Lewis for being my saviour in tracking down any and every publication I needed. To Nicola Kiri Smith for all her support in helping me to get this thesis done, you are my hero. To Aunty Polly, Rose Mohi, Bayden Barber, Āwhina Twomey, Simon Hirini, Derek Lardelli, Anaru Moke, Dr Hallie Buckley, Beatrice Hudson, Professor Lisa Matisoo-Smith, and Dr Judith Littleton for their time and sharing with me their stories and perspectives. To Aroha Mead for her sound advice and guidance. And last but by no means least, to Te Arikirangi Mamaku, for being my all-around support over the last nine years. I could not have completed this thesis without the combined support and input of all of you, I am eternally grateful. This thesis is dedicated to all the tūpuna who are yet to come home, you are not forgotten. Ngā mihi nui ki a koutou. 5 Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................... 4 Mihi | Acknowledgement ............................................................................................. 5 Contents ..................................................................................................................... 6 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................... 9 Background ........................................................................................................................... 9 Literature Review ............................................................................................................... 12 Researching Māori .......................................................................................................... 12 Repatriation Development and Debate ......................................................................... 16 Repatriation and the Indigenous voice .......................................................................... 17 Repatriation and Māori .................................................................................................. 20 The Ethics of Repatriation and Scientific Research .................................................... 22 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 23 Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................................... 24 Research Design .................................................................................................................. 27 Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 29 Qualitative Interviews ..................................................................................................... 32 Case Studies ..................................................................................................................... 33 Thesis outline....................................................................................................................... 34 PART ONE: HISTORICAL ANALYSIS ................................................................... 37 1. A History of the Acquisition of Māori Ancestral Remains 1770–1980 ................... 37 Early Acquisition of Tūpuna Māori.................................................................................. 37 The Acquisition and Trade of Toi moko .......................................................................... 39 The Theft and Exchange of Kōiwi Tangata Māori .......................................................... 42 Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 48 2. A History of Scientific Interest in Māori Ancestral Remains in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries ................................................................................................. 51 Darwinian influences .......................................................................................................... 51 Visiting Scientists ................................................................................................................ 54 Military Studies of Crania ................................................................................................. 59 Science in New Zealand ...................................................................................................... 59 Māori as a Dying Race ....................................................................................................... 61 6 Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 62 3. Scientific Research on Māori Ancestral Remains in the Late Twentieth and Twenty- first Centuries ........................................................................................................... 65 The Rise of Physical Anthropology in New Zealand ....................................................... 66 Wairau Bar Discovery and Excavation ............................................................................ 71 Wairau Bar Return and Reburial ..................................................................................... 76 Māori and Moriori Dental Morphology ........................................................................... 80 Auckland Airport Runway Development ......................................................................... 84 Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 90 4. Indigenous Repatriation and Academic Responses: An Overview ........................ 93 Case Study One: Kanaka Maoli—Intellectual Savagery versus Ohana ....................... 94 Case Study Two: Kanak—A Fight for Sovereignty ........................................................ 97 Case Study Three: Sámi—Recognition