AGRICULTURE IN LOWLAND MESOPOTAMIA IN THE LATE URUK^EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD by MICHAEL P. CHARLES Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Ph.D in the Institute of Archaeology, University College, London 1989 1 "Much is known about the archaeology and history of this land. Most studies however do not give a good description of agriculture as almost nothing is known on the subject. History is made in the cities. A golden age in history is not always a golden age in agriculture!" (Buringh 1960 p. 60) \ 2 Abstract The thesis reviewed the current state of archaeobotanical research in Mesopotamia and considered its significance for the study of Bronze Age agriculture of Lowland Mesopotamia. The climate, natural hydrology and geology of the area were described, with a view to assessing the impact of irrigation on the soils. The traditional irrigation practices of southern Iraq were discussed in relation to modern theory of irrigation and the applicability of the traditional system to that of the Sumerian * s. The types of agriculture practised in the irrigated arid region of Mesopotamia were examined with reference to modern irrigation agriculture theory. This centered on the agricultural systems seen in Lowland Mesopotamia in the early part of the twentieth-century and the way in which they were adapted to the particular local environmental conditions. The recovery, nature and possible modes of arrival of the Tell Abu Salabikh plant remains were considered in the light of the seasonality, ecology and potential uses of the plants. The characteristics of the weed seeds used to group the plants according to crop processing behaviour for the statistical analysis were explained. Statistical analyses of the Abu Salabikh plant remains were undertaken and comparisons were made with data from modern ethnographic studies. The implications of plant material derived from animal dung on the interpretation of crop husbandry and environmental conditions from plant remains recovered from archaeological sites were discussed. The data generated was used to consider currently held views on irrigation agriculture in Bronze Age Lowland Mesopotamia, which have used the existing plant remains and the information derived from the archaeological and cuneiform records. 3 Contents Chapter 1 Archaeobotany in Lowland Mesopotamia 21 1.1 The Area of Study 23 1.2 Climate, Physiography and Vegetation of Mesopotamia 25 1.2.1 Upland Mesopotamia 25 1.2.1.1 The Mountain Region 25 1.2.1.2 The Upper Plains and Foothills Region 26 1.2.1.3 The Desert Plateau Region 27 1.2.2 Lowland Mesopotamia 27 1.2.2.1 The Lower Mesopotamia Region 28 1.3 ’Traces of Plant Remains* 29 1.3.1 ’Revolutions* in Archaeobotany 30 1.3.1.1 Large-scale Recovery of Charred Plant Remains Using Water Flotation 30 1.3.1.2 Ethnological Study of Traditional Agricultural Practices 32 1.4 Mesopotamian Plant Remains. 32 1.4.1 Upland Mesopotamia - The Sourceof Crop Plants 33 1.4.2 The Plant Remains of Lowland Mesopotamia 35 1.4.2.1 The Material 36 1.4.2.2 The Method and Scale of Charred Plant Recovery 37 1.4.2.3 Identifications - Reliability and Cross Applicability 38 1.4.2.4 Discussion of the Lowland Mesopotamian Plant Remains 39 1.4.2.5 Conclusions - Agriculture in Lowland Mesopotamia 41 Chapter 2 Irrigation in Lowland Mesopotamia 54 2.1 Introduction 54 2.2 Climate 54 4 2.2.1 Rainfall 55 2.2.1.1 Effective Rainfall 56 2.2.1.2 Rainfall and Sowing 57 2.2.2 Water and Plant Development 57 2.2.2.1 Rainfall and Germination 58 2.2.2.2 Rainfall and Vegetative Growth 59 2.2.2.3 Flowering and Fruiting 59 2.2.2.4 Conclusions 60 2.2.3 Temperature 60 2.2.3.1 Climate arid Evaporation 60 2.2.3.2 Temperature and Vegetation 62 2.3 Hydrology 63 2.3.1 Stages of the River 65 2.3.1.1 Flood Plains 65 2.3.1.2 Delta Plains 66 2.3.2 River Borne Material 66 2.3.2.1 Sediment 66 2.3.2.2 Salt 67 2.3.3 River Soils 67 2.3.3.1 Flood Plain 67 2.3.3.2 Delta Plain 68 2.3.3.3 Agricultural Suitability of River Soils 69 2.4 Irrigation Theory 69 2.4.1 Introduction 69 2.4.2 Types of Irrigation in S.Iraq 70 2.4.2.1 Surface or Flood Irrigation 70 2.4.2.2 Sub-surface Irrigation 71 2.4.3 Factors Affecting Irrigation Decisions 72 2.4.3.1 Hydraulic Factors 72 2.4.3.2 Soil Factors 73 2.4.4 Movement of Water into the Rooting Zone 73 2.5 Irrigation Practice in S.Iraq 1900-60 (A.D.) 75 2.5.1 Description of the Irrigation Methods 76 5 2.5.1.1 Wild Flooding 76 2.5.1.2 Border Strip Irrigation 77 2.5.1.3 Basins 7 7 2.5.1.4 Furrow Irrigation 79 2.5.2 Water Lifting Machinery 80 2.5.3 Water Stress and the Frequency of Irrigation 81 2.5.4 Winter, Spring and Summer Cultivation 82 2.6 Soils and Irrigation in S.Iraq 83 2.6.1 Soil Texture and Structure 83 2.6.2 The Mechanical Action of Water on Soil 84 2.6.3 Irrigation soils 85 2.7 The Impact of Irrigation on the soils of the Lower Mesopotamian Plain 87 2.7.1 Salt and Irrigation Agriculture 89 2.7.2 Amelioration of Soil Salinity 92 2.7.2.1 Tillage and Salinity 92 2.7.2.2 Soil Fertility and Salinity 93 2.7.3 Leaching and Drainage 95 2.7.3.1 Leaching Requirement 96 2.7.3.2 Method of Leaching 96 2.7.4 Silt and Irrigation Agriculture 97 2.7.4.1 Sediment Deposition 97 2.7.4.2 The Impact of Fine Sediment on the Soils of the Lower Mesopotamian Plain 98 2.7.5 The Life Expectancy of soils of the Lower Mesopotamian Plain under Irrigation 99 Chapter 3 Agriculture in Lowland Mesopotamia 103 3.1 Introduction 103 3.2 Extensive farming; Winter Field Crops 107 3.2.1 Pre-sowing Tillage 107 6 3.2.2 Sowing to Harvest 109 3.2.2.1 Sowing 109 3.2.2.2 Irrigation 112 3.2.2.3 Manuring 113 3.2.2.4 Weeds and Weeding 114 3.2.2.5 Harvest 116 3.2.3 Post Harvest Events 117 3.2.4 Summer Field Crops 119 3.3 More Intensive Crop Growing Practices 120 3.3.1 Semi-intensive Cultivation 120 3.3.2 Intensive Cultivation 120 3.3.2.1 Winter Crops 122 3.3.2.2 Spring Crops 122 3.3.2.3 Summer Crops 122 3.4 Alternatives to Field Based Cultivation 123 3.4.1 Date Palm Orchards 123 3.4.1.1 Date Palm Cultivation 124 3.5 The Cultivation of Seasonally Exposed Soils 127 3.5.1 Rivers and Canal Banks 127 3.5.2 Cultivation of Marsh Edges 127 3.6 Other Aspects of Tradtional S.Iraqi Farming 129 3.6.1 Fallow 129 3.6.1.1 Fallow and Soil Fertility 130 3.6.2 Pasture, Grazing and Fodder 131 3.6.2.1 Pasture and Grazing 131 3.6.2.2 Cereal Grain as Fodder 132 Chapter 4 Abu Salabikh; site, sampling and plant recovery (The origin, identification and preliminary comments on the plant remains at Abu Salabikh) 135 4.1 The Site of Abu Salabikh 135 4.1.1 Location 135 4.1.2 Climate 136 4.1.3 Soils 136 4.1.4 Archaeology 136 4.1.4.1 Date of the Material 137 4.2 Archaeobotanical Sampling at Abu Salabikh 138 4.2.1 Introduction 138 4.2.2 Contexts Sampled 138 4.2.3 Method of flotation 140 4.2.4 Sample Sorting 142 4.3 The Abu Salabikh Plant Remains 142 4.3.1 Preservation 143 4.3.2 Identification 144 4.3.3 Identification Criteria 144 4.3.3.1 Cultivated Plants 144 4.3.3.2 Non Cultivated Plants 149 4.4 Non Cultivated Plants at Abu Salabikh 158 4.4.1 ’Modes of Arrival* 158 4.5 Seasonality 161 4.6 Habitat Preference and Plant Distribution 165 4.6.2.1 Winter Plants 167 4.6.2.2 Early Summer Plants 168 4.6.2.3 Summer Growing Plants 168 4.7 The Uses of Non Cultivated Plants 169 4.7.1 Crop Weeds 169 4.7.2 Plants Collected as Human Food Plants 170 4.7.3 Plants used in Manufacture and Furnishings 170 4.7.4 Miscellaneous Uses of Plants 170 4.7.5 Fodder species; Grazing Potential 171 4. 7.5.1 Winter Plants 172 4. 7. 5.2 Early Summer Plants 172 8 4.7.5.3 Summer Plants 172 4.7.5.4 Crop Weed and Fodder 173 4.7.5.5 Fodder and Fuel Plants 174 4.8 Weed Seed Categories 174 4.8.1 Seed Size 175 4.8.2 Headedness 176 4.8.3 Aero-dynamics 176 4.8.4 The Effect of Glume Wheat Processing on Weed Seeds 176 4.9 Miscellaneous Non Seed Material 178 4.9.1 Reed Culm Node Fragments 178 4.9.2 Cyperus rotundus Tuber 179 4.9.3 Culm Nodes and Non Cereal Grasses 180 4.9.4 Animal Dung Material 180 4.10 Cultivated Plants (Non Cereal) 181 Chapter 5 Analysis of the Abu Salabikh Plant Remains 191 5.1 Preliminary Comments on the Cereal Remains 191 5.1.1 Barley Material 191 5.1.2 Wheat Material 194 5.1.3 The Cereal Remains as a Whole 196 5.2 Introduction to the Computer Aided Analysis of the Abu Salabikh Plant Remains; Internal and External Analysis 198 5.2.1 Internal Analyses 198 5.2.1.1 Principal Components Analysis (P.C.A.) 199 5.2.1.2 Cluster Analysis 200 5.2.2 External Analysis 200 5.2.2.1 Discriminant Analysis - Canonical Variates Analysis method 200 5.3 Cereal Material 201 9 5.3.1 Percentage Square Root (Statistical analysis of the nine cereal types) 201 5.3.2 Unidentified Cereal Items Removed 203 5 .