1ý The Bronze Italian Helmet: The development of the Cassis from the last quarter of the sixth century B. C. to the third quarter of the first century A. D. Volume I. John Miles Paddock Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of PhD of the University of London. Institute of Archaeology. +" ýý ýýýýtiý -1- nNDLO This thesis is a study of the bronze Italian helmet over six centuries, from the last quarter of the sixth century B. C to the end of the 1st century A. D. It surveys and examines the mainstream development and evolution of the helmet in the Apennine peninsula, in particular the nine major forms which dominate the equipment of the Italian warrior during this period i. e. The Apulo-Corinthian, the Negau, the Italo-Chalkidian, the Etrusco-Thracian, the Italo-Pilos, the Samno-Attic, the Montefortino, the Coolus and the Hagenau helmets. Starting from the premise that the majority of helmets no matter of what form, were intended to be functional and that their evolution is entirely dependent upon the type of warfare for which each form was developed, the changing nature of that warfare and the cultural affinities of the people who used it, this thesis discusses the external agencies and cultural influences that can be traced in the development of each form, the origins of the forms themselves and provides a definitive typology for each. Where possible it also establishes an absolute chronology for these typologies, based upon dated examples, the stylistic evolution of form, the size and shape of the helmet bowl, its decoration and standards of manufacture and finish. Due to the complexities of the manufacturing processes involved in the production of bronze helmets and as many of the techniques used were common to all forms this'Study commences with an examination of these proce and the tools and technology employed including an examination of the growth of mass-production technique in Italian helmet production. Where possible workshop groups have been isolated -2- for each form and areas of regional production defined. This analysis is based on a detailed examination and comparison of the distribution of each type within each form, their dating, fittings i. e crest- fixtures, cheek-pieces etc and their decoration and its possible derivation. Finally the functional aspects of the bronze Italian helmet are discussed and attempts are made to account for the overwhelming popularity of the Montefortino helmet which from the the end of the third century B. C. had eclipsed all other Italian helmet forms. It examines the disappearance of the majority of these culturally distinct types which is a marked feature of Rome domination of Italy. It concludes therefore that it is Rome's centralisation of production under her political and military control that led to the suppression of the widespread indigenous Italian arms industries and inevitably led to the progressive rearmament of the Apennine peninsula after the Roman and ultimately Celtic fashion and therefore that it is Rome's cultural control of Italy that led to the supremacy of the Montefortino helmet. -3- Contents: Page No.: 2. Abstract ".. 4" Contents """ 5" Acknowledgements """ 7" List of Figures """ 30. List of Plates """ 35. Introduction ... 44. Manufacture ... 78. Apulo-Corinthian Helmets ... 174. Negau Helmets ... 265. Italo-Chalkidian Helmets ... 320. Etrusco-Thracian Helmets ... 365. Italo-Palos Helmets ... 400. Samna-Attic Helmets ... 469. Montefortino Helmets ... 640. Coolus Helmets ... 686. Hagenau Helmets ... 738. Conclusion """ 817. Plates ... 853. Appendix 1: A catalogue of helmets by museum ... 883. Bibliography ... -4- Acknowledgements. In the course of the research for this thesis I have visited literally dozens of museums, where I have been the lucky recipient of considerable hospitality and the generous assistance of colleagues, friends and even complete strangers. To these friends and colleagues I wish now to express my sincere thanks for their time, patience and effort. Whilst it is perhaps invidious to single out individuals for special mention I would like to thank the following in particular for their unstinting efforts on my behalf: Dr. Ernst Künzl, Rdmisb Germanisches Zentral Museum, Mainz. Dr. Rolf Michael Schneider, Badisches Landesmuseum, Kai-]sriihe. Dr. Alain Duval, MusAe de Antiquites Nationale, St. Germain en Laye. Dr. Francois Baratte, Musee du Louvre, Paris. Dr. Liliana Mercando, Soprintendenza Archeo]ogica del Piedmonte. Dr. Luciana Pratti, Museo Civico Ferrara. Dr. Pontiroli, Museo Civico Cremona. Dr. Ettore de Juliis, Museo Nazionale Taranto. The staff of the British School at Rome. Mr Brian Cook, Greek and Roman Department, The British Museum. Dr. Ralph Jackson, Department of Prehistoric and Romano-British Antiqui_tie. s, The. British Museum. _ Dr. Simon James, Education Department, British Museum. Mr Ian Eaves, Royal Armouries. Mr Thomas Richardson, Royal Armouries. Mr David Edge, The Wallace Collection. Professor John Wilkes, Institute of Archaeology, London. -5- Dr Richard Reece, Institute of Archaeology, London. Dr. Margaret Roxan, Institute of Archaeology, London. The Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies. The staff of the British Library. The Staff of the Corinium Museum. Mr Nick Griffiths. My especial thanks and appreciation must go to both Peter Connolly and Mark Hassall, Institute of Archaeology, London, without whose advice, assistance and inspiration this thesis could never have been attempted. Finally and perhaps most of aLl I would like to thank my family, especially my wife Sarah and daughter Alexandra whose long suffering tolerance has often been strained to the limit during the completion of this work. To them therefore I would like to dedicate what follows. -6- LIST OF ILLUSTRATTnIS, 1: 1. A detail of a graffito from the Catacomb of Domatilla showing a smith and his assistant. 1: 2. A modern "Bickiron". 2: 1. A beaked anvil from Silchester. 2: 2. A beaked anvil from Pompeii. 3: 1. A block anvil from Pompeii. 3: 2. A modern "planishing" hammer. 3: 3. A modern "raising" hammer. 3: 4. A combined hammer from Newstead. 3: 5. A "planishing hammer from Hod Hill. 4: 1. A combined hammer from Silchester. 4: 2. Two pairs of metal working tongs from Newstead. 4: 3. The method used for working an indented brow-band. 5: 1. A double loop chin-strap fixture. 5: 2. A helmet lining from a medieval helmet in the Wallace collection. 5: 3. A diagramatic reconstruction of a helmet turning lathe. 6. The stages in the production of a "spun" Hagenau helmet. 7. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet. 8. A map showing the distribution of Apulo-Corinthian helmets 9: 1. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type I, from Sicliy. Now in the Antikenmuseum Berlin (L27. ). 9: 2. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type I, from south Italy. Now in the Antikenmuseum Berlin (L28. ). 9: 3. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type I, from Syracuse. Now in the Antikenmuseum Berlin (L29. ). 10: 4. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type I, from south Italy. Now in the Bibliotheque Nationale. (2015. ). 10: 5. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type I, from Tomb A. Chiucchari Necropolis near Melfi. Now in the Nuseo Nazianale di Melfi. (50246). 10: 8. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type I, from Tomb A. Chiucchari Necropolis near Melfi. Now in the Museo Nazionale di Melfi. (50245). 11: 7. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type I, from south Italy. Now in the Dallas Museum of Fine Arts. 11: 8. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type I, from Taranto. Now in the Collection Guttmann, Berlin. 12: 9. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type I, from the Basilicata. Now in a private Collection in Lucerne. 12: 10. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type I, from south Italy. Whereabouts unknown. -7- 12: 11. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type I, from Apulia. Now in the British Museum (2823.1873.8-20.224. ). 13: 12. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type I, from Ruvo di Puglia. Now in the Nuseo Nazionale Naples (5732). 13: 13. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type I, from Grave 24" Rutigliano near Bari. Now in the Nuseo Nazianale Taranto. (140173). 13: 14. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type I, from Ruvo di Puglia. Now in the British Museum (2831 1856.12-26.616, ). 14: 15. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type It, from south Italy. Now in the Nurnberg Museum. 14: 16. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type II, from Friuli. Armeria Reale Turin. (A12). 15: 17. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type II, from Tomb 25 at Ordona. Now in the Armeria Reale Turin. (A13). 15: 18. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type It, from south Italy. Present whereabouts unknown. 16: 19. An Apulo-Corinthian helnEt of Type II, from south Italy. Now in the Collection Guttmann, Berlin. 16: 20. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type III, from Tomb 7, Leonessa near Melfi. Now in the Museo Nazianale Melfi (52960) 17: 21. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type III, from Tomb F. Chiucchari Necropolis near Melfi. Now in the Museo Nazionale di Melfi. (50389). 17: 22. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type III, from Tomb 56. Lavello Now in the Museo Nazionale di Melfi. (52888). 18: 23. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type III, from Tomb F. Chiucchari. Now in the Museo Nazionale di Melfi. (50388). 18: 24. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type III, from Grave 82 Ripacandida. Now in the Museo Nazionale d i Melfi. (118161). III, from Chiucchari Now 19: 25. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type . in the Museo Provincale di Potenza Melfi. (50389). 19: 26. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type III, from south Italy. Now in the Musee du Cinquantenaire Brussels (A703). 20: 27. An Apulo-Corinthian helmet of Type III, from Pomarico. Now in the British Museum (2832 1856.12-26.669. ) 20: 28.