THE HISTORY, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE MANAGEMENT IN JAPAN A Dissertation by RANDALL JAMES SASAKI Submitted to the Office of Graduate and Professional Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Chair of Committee, Luis Filipe M. Vieira de Castro Committee Members, Vaughn M. Bryant Christopher M. Dostal Di Wang Head of Department, Darryl De Ruiter December 2019 Major Subject: Anthropology Copyright 2019 Randall James Sasaki ABSTRACT Japan is an island nation; the ocean and seas influenced the life of its people. Considering this fact, it is natural to assume that Japan is a leading nation in the field of maritime and nautical archaeology. However, Japan is one nation that has not developed a strong management system for researching and protecting its underwater cultural heritage. Waterfront developments, marine resource extraction projects, and dredging activities are underway, all without proper care of the cultural heritage located below the waves. In fact, developers have begun these projects without making any attempt to locate cultural heritage sites beneath them. The ultimate goal or purpose of conducting this research is to rectify this situation, to promote the study of underwater and maritime archaeology in Japan to prevent the loss of the important and rich cultural heritage of the country. To achieve this goal, the author first examined the history of underwater archaeological research in Japan and conducted a brief survey of all underwater archaeological research and maritime disasters. The author next examined how other countries managed their underwater cultural heritage to compare their activities with those of Japan. This is followed by a discussion of the possible reasons for the slow development of the field in Japan. Based on the analysis and the interpretation of Japanese official documents, the author suggests strategies for the protection of Japan’s underwater cultural heritage. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my committee chair, Dr. Castro, my committee members, and the staff/faculty at the Department of Anthropology for their support in completing my Dissertation. I am also grateful for the patience and love of my family, as well as my mother and father, for their encouragement. iii CONTRIBUTORS AND FUNDING SOURCES Contributors This work was supervised by a dissertation committee consisting of Professors Louis Filipe Castro (Committee Chair), Vaughn Bryant, and Christopher Dostal from the Department of Anthropology, and retired professor Di Wang from the Department of History. Much of the data analyzed for Chapters three, four, and five were collected while I participated in the research projects conducted at Kyushu National Museum and the Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs. All other work conducted for the dissertation was completed by the student independently. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily represent the official views of the Kyushu National Museum, nor the Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs. iv NOMENCLATURE ARIUA Asian Research Institute of Underwater Archaeology ASA The Abandoned Shipwrecks Act BCE Before Common Era BP Before Present CE Common Era DRASSM The Direction des Recherches Archaeologiques Subaquatiques et Sous-Marines JACA The Japanese Agency for Cultural Affairs KNM Kyushu National Museum NMSA The National Marine Sanctuaries Act NOAA The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NRIMCH The National Research Institute of Maritime Cultural Heritage PEG Polyethylene Glycol RCE The Dutch Cultural Heritage Agency ROV Remotely Operated Vehicle SMAC The Sunken Military Craft Act SONAR Sound Navigation and Ranging UCH Underwater Cultural Heritage UNCLOS The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Science and Cultural Organization VOC Dutch East India Company v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................................ iii CONTRIBUTORS AND FUNDING SOURCES .................................................................... iv NOMENCLATURE ................................................................................................................. v TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. viii LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1 Definition of Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH) ....................................... 3 Current Status of Research .............................................................................. 4 Outline of the Research ................................................................................... 8 Summary ......................................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER II BRIEF HISTORY OF UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN JAPAN ............................................................................................................................... 12 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 12 Stage 1: Early Development ........................................................................... 12 Stage 2: Beginning of Investigation by Municipalities................................... 16 Stage 3: Spread of Underwater Archaeological Research .............................. 22 Underwater Archaeology and the Study of Prehistoric Sites.......................... 33 Takashima Underwater Site ............................................................................ 36 Recent Developments led by JACA ............................................................... 44 Summary ......................................................................................................... 50 CHAPTER III STATUS OF UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES....................... 52 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 52 Methodology ................................................................................................... 52 Overall Nature of Sites.................................................................................... 64 Analysis by Region ......................................................................................... 68 Summary ......................................................................................................... 84 vi Page CHAPTER IV SURVEY OF RECORDS OF MARITIME DISASTER ................................. 85 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 85 Study of Maritime Accidents across Japan ..................................................... 86 Case Studies: Yamaguchi and Fukuoka Prefectures ....................................... 99 Summary ......................................................................................................... 106 CHAPTER V BRIEF STUDY OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE MANAGEMENT AROUND THE WORLD ........................................................................... 108 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 108 Development of UCH Management Systems ................................................. 108 Current Management System of UCH ........................................................... 114 Case Studies of Seven Countries .................................................................... 119 Summary ......................................................................................................... 135 CHAPTER VI CONDUCTING ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN JAPAN ................. 137 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 137 Concerns Regarding Protection of UCH......................................................... 137 Related Documents and Acts .......................................................................... 142 The Committee and the JACA Guideline ....................................................... 148 Responsibilities of National, Prefectural, and Local Governments ................ 157 CHAPTER VII CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................. 161 Summary of the Studies .................................................................................. 161 Concluding Remarks ....................................................................................... 163 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 165 APPENDIX A ..........................................................................................................................