RELIGIOUS MEN AND LITERACY IN BERTI SOCIETY Abdullahi Osman Eltom A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of St. Andrews 1984 Full metadata for this item is available in Research@StAndrews:FullText at: http://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/10023/2831 This item is protected by original copyright - i - RELIGIOUS MEN AND LITERACY IN BERTI SOCIETY By ABDULLAHIOSMAN ELTOM ~ - ii - To my country, to the Berti and to my parents. - iii - DECLARATION I, Abdullahi Osman Eltom, hereby certify that this thesis which is approximately 100 000 words in length has been written by me, that it is the record of work carried out by me and that it has not been submitted in any previous application for a higher degree. date '5 j/I/ l1.tI.. ~ signature of candida - iv - I was admitted as a research student under Ordinance No. 12 on the 5th of June 1980 and as a candidate for the degree of Ph.D in Social Anthropology on the same date; the higher study for which this is a record was carried out in the University of St.Andrews between 1980 and 1983. signature of candidate - v - CERTIFICATE I hereby certify that the candidate has fulfilled the conditions of the Resolution and Regulations appropriate to the degree of Ph.D. of the University of St.Andrews and that he is qualified to submit this thesis in application for that degree. datel~ ~~fri3 signature of supervisor - vii - Contents Title Page Chapter 1: Berti Islam and fakis 1 Chapter 2: Koranic schools 24 Chapter 3: Erasure (mihai) 59 Chapter 4: Hijab 111 Chapter 5: Book divination 169 Chapter 6: Sand divination 203 Chapter 7: The fakis and the community 256 Chapter 8: Conclusion 290 - viii - List of tables Table 1 : Values of the Arabic letters 171 Table 2: The recommended names 172 Table 2: Conformity and non-conf 0 rmi ty to to the recommended names 173 Table 4: Success or failure of marriage 195 Table 5: Couples' stars in actual marriages 202 Table 5: Divining of directions 248 Table 7: Divining of colour 249 Table 8: Colours and directions 250 Table 9: Reasons for divination 251 Table 10: Literacy of the diviners and the method of divination 253 Table 11: Arab and Berti properties of ramul figures 255 Table 12: Arabic terms for ramul figures Appendices Appendix 1: A- A Basanga pedigree 303 B- A Basanga pedigree 304 C- A sharafa pedigree 305 Appendix 2: A faki's library 306 Appendix 3: A'Batutaf. hijab 308 Appendix 4: Arabic terms for ramul figures 309 - ix - Abstract The thesis examines the use of traditional literacy promulgated by the Koranic schools among the Berti in the Northern Darfur Province of the Republic of the Sudan. This literacy is restricted both in the scope of its use as well as in its social distribution, which remains limited to religious specialists - fakis. Instead of leading to a change in the traditional mode of thought, Berti literacy contributes considerably to maintaining the homeostatic tendency supposedly characteristic of oral societies. Literacy plays an important role in the Berti religious life. The words of God contained in the Koran and other books widely used by the fakis are considered to be sacred, and an important aspect of Berti religion is their internalisation in the form of memorisation, drinking of erasure and the retaining of amulets (hijbat). The repetition of sacred words is used as a means of invoking God in communal rituals and the rites of passage. Literacy underlies book divination practised by the fakis and its literate origin is the ultimate sanction of sand divination which is primarily practised by the illiterate Berti. In their use of the sacred words in healing, divination, communal rituals, rites of passage and the preparation of amulets and erasure, Berti fakis impose their own meaning on the Koranic text which differs considerably from its theological meaning. - x - The thesis includes translation and analysis of over 50 original texts pertaining to erasure writing, amulets, book divination and communal rituals. Photocopies of 25 original amulets are presented in the thesis and the majority of them are translated and commented upon. - xi - Acknowledgements The fieldwork for this thesis was carried out in the Sudan from June 1980 to June 1981 and was funded by the University of Gezira, whose financial as well as moral support are gratefully acknowledged. My thanks are also due to various governmental officials in Darfur province for their help with transport and to the staff of various clinics in the Berti area for allowi~ me access to their documents. The Berti showed great tolerance towards my inquisitiveness and overwhelmed me with their generosity and friendship. They are too numerous to express my debts of gratitude to them individually and I can only pledge to dedicate myself to joining them in their struggle for advancement. I am greatly indebted to my supervisor, Dr Holy, and his wife Alice, for their warm friendship and hospitality. My supervisor's contribution to the completion of this thesis is incalculable. He has not only inspired my work in a profound way but has initiated me into anthropology as a career. lowe a debt to Catherine Cobham for correcting my English. When doing so, she ha~ aptly interpreted numerous Berti concepts which are alien to English thought and which would otherwise remain obscure. Her dedication and deep knowledge of Arab-Islamic culture were an invaluable encouragement to me. -xll- Chapters 2 and 6 of the thesis were read at the weekly Social Anthropology Seminars at the University of St.Andrews and the comments of the members of staff and of the students were of great help to me in writing the final draft. Dr. Riches offered valuable comments on Chapter 2 and Dr Fardon helped me with the translation of a number of French articles relevant to Chapter 6. I am grateful to them both. My thanks are also due to my fellow research students G. Bastera, N. James and S. Gardner, for the lengthy discussions I have had with them and for their comments on a number of issues. Lastly, I wish to express my sincere appreciation to Mr. S. Harvey, Mr. G. Gibb, B. Bremner and Mr. G. Sandeman of the Geography Department for their help with the photocopies and with the map. -Xiii- M E I D 0 B D.R. of Sudan • Malha Ir-------- ~ ,_.JI Hills I ------\ ~ I I ~ rt,tyfJ ~t o Mellit I :x: I I (!) " I EI Fasher \ 0 I • • J ~ " Umm Keddadl ,, "J ~~ B kma a: :::> 800 ~ TeweiaN 0 B A G G A R A --_/ .. _oJ i i -- 0 kma 100 Berti Location . • J." PAGE' NUMBERING . \ AS ORIGINAL -::-----. ; " - 1 - C HAP T E R 1 The Berti, Islam and fakis There are roughly 60 to 80 thousand Berti in the Northern Darfur Province of the Democratic Republic of the Sudan. Their land extends approximately from line 13 44' to 14 34' N. and from line 25 16' to 56 17' E. The vegetation and the annual rainfall change gradually as one moves from one side of the zone to the other. The grassland of the dry savannah in the north merges into the light woodland savannah of the south. The average annual rainfall increases from around 200mm in the north to around 500mm in the south. The traditional Berti homeland is in the northern part of their present territory. It is an upland plateau at 700 to 1000m above sea level. The plateau is crossed by the Tagabo Hills chain which consists of sandstone and volcanic mountains the highest of which is 1500m. The extention of Berti territory to the south of the plateau is a recent phenomenon dating back to less than two centuries ago. It is due to the migration which occurred in response to the pressure from the northern neighbouring tribe, the Meidob. Other smaller Berti groups have established themselves in other parts of the Sudan. The biggest of these groups is in Um-Ruwaba and the Gezira Aba in central Sudan and in the Gedarif region in eastern Sudan. Nowadays, the Berti speak their own dialect ·of the Arabic language. Several generations ago, they spoke their own language which belonged to the Middle Sahara language group and was probably close to the existing Zaghawa language. - 2 - The Berti of Darfur operate a mixed economy and combine hoe cultivation with animal husbandry. Millet and sorghum are their main crops. They also cultivate okra, sesame, water melon, hibiscus, cucumber, pumpkins and little tomatoes. Peanuts are intensively grown in the southern part of their territory as a cash crop. They keep goats, cattle, sheep, donkeys and camels; chickens provide an additional source of meat. The harvest of the staple crops, millet and sorghum, is at constant risk, especially in the north. Both these crops are grown there in sandy soil with less than the sufficient level of humidity. Inadequate distribution of rainfall, too little rain or too much of it can all lead to a bad harvest. The rainy season, which starts in the north from June to September, is hardly long enough for successful millet cultivation as this crop requires 100 days to ripen. To obtain the maximum use of the humidity available, the sowing commences on the day of the first heavy rain of the season. The sown seeds grow then together with wild grass in the field. The wild grass competing with the millet is later eliminated by weeding which starts four weeks after sowing and continues for about six weeks.