Durham E-Theses Tribesmen and the colonial encounter: Southern Tunisia during the French protectorate1882 to 1940 Fozzard, Adrian How to cite: Fozzard, Adrian (1987) Tribesmen and the colonial encounter: Southern Tunisia during the French protectorate1882 to 1940, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/6764/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 VOLUME II TRIBESMEN AND THE COLONIAL ENCOUNTER: SOUTHERN TUNISIA DURING THE FRENCH PROTECTORATE 1882 TO 1940. A dissertation submitted in satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Geography at Durham University by Adrian Fozzard The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. 198'7 -i- CONTENTS VOLUlffi II APPENDICES 2 I. Matmata: the Regional Balance of Trade and ' Production. 2 II. Two Acts of Donation from Southern Tunisia. 5 I II. An Act of Habous from Southern Tunisia. 7 IV. An Act of Mortgage from Southern Tunisia. 9 v. An Index of Wealth. 10 VI. A Seditious Song from Matmata <1914). 14 VI I. Acts of Election from Southern Tunisia. 16 VIII. Acts about Patron and Client Tribes. 22 IX. Divide and rule: relations between the tribes and their use by the French. 25 9.1. Nomads and farmers. 25 9.2. A Berber Republic. 38 9.3. Inter-Tribal Conflict: a liability and an asset. 49 NOTES 67 Chapter 1 69 Chapter 2 70 Chapter 3 80 Chapter 4 95 Chapter 5 103 Chapter 6 109 Chapter 7 123 Chapter 8 132 Appendix IX 143 LIST OF TABLES 2. 1. The Climate of Southern Tunisia. 152 2. 2. The Variability of Rainfall in Southern Tunisia. 153 2. 3. The Growth of Olive Plantations in Southern Tunisia 154 2. 4. The Expansion of Fig Cultivation in Southern Tunisia 154 2. 5. The Expansion of Date Cultivation in Southern Tunisia 154 2. 6. Animal Herds in Southern Tunisia <1886-1937). 155 2. 7. Proportion of Sheep in the Sheep and Goat Herd. 157 2. 8. Hunter-gathering in Southern Tunisia. 159 2. 9. Amines appointed in Southern Tunisia <1886-1945). 160 2.10. Irrigation and Wells in Southern Tunisia <1951). 161 -ii- 2. 11. Wells Built following the Decrees of 25 January and 15 September 1897. 161 2. 12. The Number of Oil Presses in the South <1943). 161 2.13. The Population of Southern Tunisia before the Protectorate. 162 2.14. The Population of Southern Tunisia <1886-1936). 163 2. 15. Birth and Death Rates in Southern Tunisia. 163 2.16. Age and Sex Distribution of Population by Ca1dat. 164 2.17. Age and Sex Distribution of the Population of Matmata by Cheikhat <1910). 165 2.18. Age and Sex Distribution of the Population of Tataouine by Ethnic Group <1926>. 165 2.19. Medical Services in Southern Tunisia during the Protectorate. 166 2. 20. Jews and Immigrant Muslims in Southern Tunisia. 167 2. 21. Tripolitanians in Southern Tunisia. 167 3. 1. Trade in Matmata <1886). 168 3. 2. Trade in Matmata <1901>. 168 3. 3. Exports and Imports to and from Zarzis <1886). 169 3. 4. Prices in Southern Tunisia <1886-1894). 170 3. 5. Caravans in Southern Tunisia <1724-1911). 171 3. 6. Annual Sales at Markets in the South (1896-1939). 172 3. 7. Goods Sold in the Markets of the Territoires Militaires. 173 3. 8. Animals Slaughtered in Tunisia <1916-1931). 174 3. 9. Contraband seized in Southern Tunisia during 1941. 175 3. 10. Contraband and Smugglers in Southern Tunisia (1903-1911) 175 3. 11. Movements in the Ports of Southern Tunisia (1906-1939). 176 3.12. The Composition of Trade at Marca Ksiba <1922). 177 3.13. Exports from Ben Gardane <1905-1907). 177 3.14. The Caravan Trade between Southern Tunisia and Tripolitania <1915-1936), 177 3.15. Prices in the Interior of Tripolitania <1912-1927) 178 3.16. Price Changes in Tunisia <1926-1936). 178 4. 1. The Distribution of Wealth between the ethnic groups of Southern Tunisia. The Mean Number of Animals held by Guarantors. 179 4. 2. The Means of Landed Property held by Guarantors. 180 4. 3. The Mean Value of Property in Francs held by Guarantors. 181 4. 4. The Mean Wealth held by Guarantors using the Index of Wealth. 182 4. 5. Goats and Sheep. Percentage Frequency Distribution Guarantors' Wealth by Ethnic Group. 183 4. 6. Camels. 184 4. 7. Horses. 185 4. 8. Cattle. 186 4. 9. Olives. 187 4. 10. Figs. 188 4. 11. Dates. 189 -iii- 4.12. Land. 190 4.13. Djesser's. 191 4. 14. Sania's <Irrigated gardens). 4.15. Weaith in Francs. 192 4.16. Standardised Wealth in Francs. 193 4. 17. Total Number of Fruit Trees. 194 4.18. Wealth in Trees <Index of Wealth). 195 4.19. Wealth in Animals <Index of Wealth). 196 4. 20. Total Wealth <Index of Wealth). 197 4. 21. The Proportion of Trees in Total Wealth <Index of Wealth). 198 4.22. The Distribution of Wealth in the South (c.1886). 199 4.23. The Distribution of Wealth in Southern Tunisia <1957). 200 4.24. The Distribution of Wealth in Matmata <1954). 200 4.25. The European Population in the Territoires Militaires. 201 4.26. Colonists at Zarzis <1905). 202 4.27. The Size Distribution of European Estates in the Territoires Militaires <1897-1911). 202 4.28. The Delimitation of Collective Lands before and after the Decree of 23 November 1918. 203 4.29. The Creation of Habous during the Protectorate. 203 4. 30. Debtors and Creditors. 204 5. 1. Variations in the Proportion of the Harvest received by Sharecroppers. 205 5. 2. Herdowners and Herders in Southern Tunisia. 205 5. 3. Employment of Muslims in the Territoires Militaires by Ca1dat <1931-1936). 206 5. 4. Employment in Southern Tunisia by Ethnic Group <c. 1930). 207 5. 5. Employment of Jews in Southern Tunisia. 208 5. 6. Workers in Southern Tunisia following a Survey of 1951. 209 Definition of Categories. 210 5. 7. Travailleurs Coloniales <1916-1918). 211 5. 8. Specialist Professions of Southern Migrants. 211 5. 9. Migrants from the Mountain communities <c. 1950). 212 5.10. Transhumants from the Cercle of Medenine <1901-2). 213 5.11. Numbers of Transhumants from the Circonscription of Tataouine <1936 to 1952). 214 5.12. Family Budgets in Southern Tunisia <1938). 217 5.13. Meals and Consumption in Southern Tunisia <c. 1940). 219 5.14. Begging in Tunisia <1934-1939). 220 6. 1. The Mahalla. 221 6. 2. Garrisons in South East Tunisia <1882-1922). 221 6. 3. Reinforcement of the Garrisons in the South during the Revolt of the Ouderna in 1915. 222 6. 4. Casualties in the French and Tunisian Armies in the South <1914 to 1 April 1919). 223 6. 5. The Distance of Surfaced and Unsurfaced Roads in Southern Tunisia (January 1943). 223 -iv- 6. 6. Conscription of Tunisians into the Tunisian Army (1888-1935). 224 6. 7. Imprisonments imposed by the Authorities of Southern Tunisia in the First Six Months of 1901. 224 6. 8. Cases settled by the Ca1ds, Kahias, Khalifas Delegues and Presidents des Tribunaux Regionaux. 225 6. 9. The Reform of Fiscal Legislation during the Protectorate. 226 6.10. The Changing Fiscal Burden of Southern Tunisia <1888 to 1929). 228 6. 11. Taxes Paid in the Cheikhat of Beni Barka <1929). 229 6.12. Total Tax Paid by Circonscription <1894-1940). 229 6.13. Government Expenditure and Receipts in Nefzaoua and Matmata 230 6.14. Dissidents from Southern Tunisia Residents in Tripolitania <1882-1893). 231 6.15. The Place of Residence of Dissidents from Southern Tunisia in Tripolitania <May 1890). 232 6.16. The Place of Residence of Dissidents from Southern Tunisia in Tripolitania <May 1893). 233 6.17. The Number of Dissidents following the Revolt of the Ouderna. 234 7. 1. The Genealogical Division of the Ouerghamma. 235 7. 2. The Genealogical Division of the Oulad Chehida. 236 7. 3. The family of Ali ben Medkour <Ahl el Kalaa). 240 7. 4. Families and Political Office. 241 7. 5. Lineages and Fractions in Southern Tunisia. 242 7. 6. A Sian Douar <1911). 245 9. 1. Client Tribes in Southern Tunisia and Eastern Tripolitania. 247 9. 2. The Sahab contract in Southern Tunisia. 248 9. 3. Intertribal Soffs in Tunisia in the 19th Century. 249 9. 4. A Census of the Berber Speaking Population (1922). 250 XAPS 1. Southern Tunisia <A Topographic Map). 252 2. The Tribes of Tunisia <c. 1890). 253 3. Ksour, KalAa, and Troglodyte Villages in Southern Tunisia 254 3.A. Ksour and KalAa in Djebel Abiodh. 255 4. Ksar Xedenine <c. 1912). 256 5. The Growth of Markets Centres in the South. 257 6. The Development of Landownership among the Matmata, Haouia, Djebalia and Ouderna.