A.D. (Lucero 2002:820)1, fundamental changes occurred. Around 900 A.D. these changes resulted in the cessation of construction of the stelae, hieroglyphic texts INTRODUCTION and other monuments such as temples and The Maya of Mesoamerica have palaces, in the curtailment of production of fascinated the public for decades. The latest polychrome ceramics, in the end of the example is Mel Gibson's movie Apoca1ypto divine ru1ership, and, eventually, in the (2006) depicting, with many inaccuracies, abandonment of the major cities in the the 'decline' of the Maya civilization. southern lowlands. Sites in the northern Around 900 A.D. most of the major Maya lowlands, however, continued to flourish cities in the southern lowlands were until around 1000 A.D. (Iannone 2005:26; abandoned. Archaeologists refer to this Rice 2004:2; Sab10ff & Andrews 1986:9; event as the 'classic Maya collapse'. Why Shaw 2003:157, 159). These transformations the collapse occurred is widely discussed. have been termed by archaeologists as the Archaeologists and scholars of other 'Classic Maya Collapse'. Scholars have disciplines have provided diverse suggested a variety of possible explanations explanations for the phenomenon, which can for the 'collapse'; I will present some of roughly be divided into two groups: models them in the following sections. that emphasize ecological/environmental factors (e.g., climate change, environmental degradation, or diseases), and those that stress socio-politica1 issues (e.g., class conflict or decentralization). In this paper, I will examine different explanations for the classic Maya collapse and how these authors consider the collapse as a result of a combination of multiple factors. I will further critically discuss, based on recent research, the concept of 'collapse' and argue for its replacement with the notions of transition or transformation. EXPLANATIONS FOR THE COLLAPSE The Classic period of the ancient Maya (ca. 250-900 A.D.) is characterized by the rise of city-states with palaces, temples, and inscribed stone monuments (stelae) throughout what is today southern Mexico, Belize, Guatemala and Honduras. These Fig. 1: Map of the Maya area (Sant1ey et ai. states were ruled by divine kings or lords 1986:124) (Marcus 2003:86; Paine & Freter 1996:37). The major cities were often surrounded by smaller (satellite) cities governed by sub10rds (Marcus 2003:102). During the Terminal Classic period around 850-950 1 Rice and colleagues (2004:8) suggest 800/830- 950/1000 A.D. as dates for the Terminal Classic. TOTEM: vo1.16 2007-2008 2008 TOTEM: The U.W.O. Journal of Anthropology Climate Change migrations in the intertropical convergence Natural scientists from vanous zone, caused a drier climate and a series of disciplines such as geosciences, earth multi-year droughts in the Maya area sciences and chemistry, argue that several (ibid.:74, 77). Although these natural droughts played a significant role in the scientists do not present further possible collapse. According to Haug and colleagues causes, their proposition that the "migrations (2003: 1731), three droughts struck the Maya of the tropical rain belt could have around 810, 860 and 910 A.D. Peterson and contributed' to the collapse (ibid.:74; my Haug (2005:327) add a fourth, which emphasis) implies that other factors may occurred around 760 A.D. These droughts have also played a role. were caused by shifts in the atmosphere Shaw (2003), an archaeologist, also (peterson & Haug 2005:322). Although the suggests climate change as a major factor Maya had developed techniques to secure contributing to the collapse. She argues that access to water such as excavations and anthropogenic deforestation exacerbated an quarries as water reservoirs and complex already drier (worldwide cooler) climate irrigation systems, the southern lowlands resulting in famine (ibid.:157, 164). Due to depended on rainfall for their agricultural population growth, the Maya deforested production because natural groundwater large areas for agricultural use which resources were scarce (Haug et al. resulted in increased temperatures, a 2003:1733f.; Peterson & Haug 2005:323f., decrease in evapotranspiration2 and, thus, in 327). In contrast, the population in the a decrease in rainfall (ibid.: 162). northern lowlands had better access to Additionally, when rain fell heavily in groundwater and were, therefore, less deforested areas it caused soil erosion and affected by the droughts. The authors imply flooding (ibid.: 164). Shaw further points out that the different access to groundwater is that Maya sites were not uniformly affected the reason why the northern lowland sites by the climate change, referring not only to did not collapse at the same time as the differences between the northern and states in the southern lowlands (Haug et al. southern lowlands but also to different sites 2003: 1734; Peterson & Haug 2005 :327). within the southern lowlands (ibid.: 160f.). Drawing on archaeologists and other According to her, deforestation is a possible scholars, the natural scientists list further explanation for the "mosaic" climate change factors that contributed to the collapse such (ibid.: 157, 161). as rapid population growth, environmental Moreover, Shaw suggests that degradation (Haug et al. 2003: 1733; droughts affected the Maya in the southern Peterson & Haug 2005:328), resource lowlands more severely than those in the exploitation, and internal warfare (peterson northern lowlands because: (a) they were & Haug 2005:328). Moreover, the droughts more dependent on rainfall through undermined the power of the lords. Their evapotranspiration, (b) they had less access authority was closely linked to the control of to groundwater, (c) their agricultural the water resources and, therefore, declined as their ceremonies and technologies failed 2 Evapotranspiration means "the transport of water to secure rainfall (Haug et at. 2003: 1734; into the atmosphere from surfaces, including soil Peterson & Haug 2005:328). (soil evaporation), and from vegetation Yancheva and colleagues (2007) (transpiration)" (Burba 2006). Other forms of evaporation, contributing to the process of argue that changes in the global climate evapotranspiration, are evaporation from wet canopy between 700 and 900 A.D., specifically surface and from "vegetation-covered water surface in wetlands" (ibid.). TOTEM: vo1.16 2007-2008 3 practices relied on a water surplus , and (d) fever could have been a significant factor for deforestation was more widespread than in the large population decline at the end of the the north (2003: 162ff.). She concludes that Classic period (he claims an 80% to 85% decline of rainfall cannot be viewed as the population loss between 800 and 1000 A.D.) single cause for the collapse. Instead, she and thus for the collapse. Monkeys serve as suggests a combination of several factors hosts for the yellow fever virus, which is including population growth, deforestation, transmitted through mosquitoes (ibid.:284, drought (regional climate change), a 288). Wilkinson suggests that the Maya worldwide cooler climate, the declining came into contact with the virus while they 4 5 power of the lords , and increased warfare were clearing the forest to use the land for (ibid.: 164). agricultural production and/or through monkeys that lived in close proximity to the Environmental Degradation dwellings (ibid.:279f., 288). The virus was Paine and Freter (1996), two transmitted between humans through archaeologists, reject collapse models which mosquitoes, which found many breeding suggested natural disaster, epidemic disease, sites in the cities such as broken dishes, external invasion, and peasant revolt as open pots, and storage containers in which causes in the Copan Valley. They argue that water was collected (ibid.:280, 288). The depopulation, which is considered to be one Maya were severely affected by the disease characteristic of the collapse, occurred because they lacked immunity to the virus gradually (ibid.:37, 45). Paine and Freter's (ibid.:289). Although the author (1996:37, 44) explanation for the collapse acknowledges further reasons for the includes a combination of related collapse, such as population growth and environmental/ecological factors. Population other, non-specified, ecological and growth resulted in an intensification of sociological factors, he views the yellow agriculture in order to sustain the fever epidemic as a primary cause (ibid.). population, and, consequently, in an increased exploitation of resources. This Class Conflict and Peasant Revolt overexploitation caused soil erosion and a Hamblin and Pitcher (1980), two decrease in soil fertility. To put it simply: a sociologists, present class conflict between degradation of the environmental resources the peasants and the elite and the resulting resulted. peasant revolt as the overall explanations for the collapse. Although other factors such as Disease overpopulation, foreign invasion, or diseases Wilkinson (1995:270f., 284), a could have contributed to the collapse, they cultural anthropologist, argues that yellow consider class conflict as the primary cause (ibid.:262) and try to prove their hypothesis with mathematical models and 3 The technologies used by the Maya in the southern archaeological artefacts. For example, the lowlands included, for example, reservoirs, canals, and raised fields (Shaw 2003:163.). faces of elites on stone monuments were 4 The lords could no longer guarantee rainfall and mutilated while those of peasants were left