1 Second best as a researcher, second to none as a populariser? The atmospheric science of John Tyndall FRS (1820-1893) By Irena Maria McCabe A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor of philosophy Department of Science and Technology Studies University College London 2012 2 I, Irena Maria McCabe confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. 3 ABSTRACT John Tyndall, FRS (1820-1893), the eminent scientist and mountaineer, the discoverer of the greenhouse gases, has been frequently presented as chiefly a populariser of science rather than a researcher. Although he regarded this education as an important function to fulfil, his researches and discoveries reported in the publications of the Royal Society, the Royal Institution and the British Association for the Advancement of Science, constitute a testimony to his standing as a scientist, hitherto neglected by his commentators. This thesis studies his contributions to the physics of the atmosphere and their subsequent impact on meteorology, research that is relevant to today’s concerns about climate change. Tyndall, did however, also make discoveries in other branches of physics, chemistry and bacteriology. Like many aspiring British scientists of the nineteenth century, Tyndall went to Germany as a mature student. He chose the University of Marburg to study chemistry, physics and mathematics under the renowned chemist, Robert Bunsen, the physicist Gerling and the mathematician Stegmann respectively, graduating with a PhD in applied mathematics.1 At this time Faraday’s extraordinary discovery of diamagnetism in 1846 were causing a sensation in Germany, France and Britain. Scientists eagerly studied Faraday’s research, replicating his experiments and interpreting his findings. Faraday’s work apparently confirmed concomitant researches by Plücker on the magnetic properties of crystals. Tyndall’s pioneering contributions to the study of diamagnetism2 constituted his formative experiences as an experimentalist. He effectively challenged the opinions of the distinguished scientists, Faraday and Plücker.3 The deportment of magnetism with respect to matter provided Tyndall with a comprehensive alternative to Faraday’s views on the interaction of point forces with 1 Tyndall (1870). 2 Tyndall (1851), 2, (9), 165-188 3 Plücker (1849), 5, 353-375; 376-382. 4 matter. Tyndall’s analogous investigation of radiant heat and its transmission by the atmosphere enabled him to study matter in its gaseous phase, hitherto inaccessible to the experimental process, and to participate in the all-important shaping of meteorology as a scientific discipline. The analogous interactions of matter with the forces of light and heat prompted Tyndall’s speculations on the role of the molecular structure in the modification and transmission of forces. The Tyndall Centre for the Study of Climate Change, thus named in his honour in the year 2000 by the Director of the Royal Institution, Professor Peter Day, testifies to the importance of Tyndall’s contributions to the all pervading problems which today face mankind. This thesis also addresses his role as a leading publicist for scientific naturalism and campaigner for science education, throwing a new light on his motives. On the death of his mentor and friend, Faraday, Tyndall succeeded him as Resident Professor in charge of the Royal Institution. In this historic laboratory Tyndall devised and perfected experimental methodology for the study of matter in its gaseous phase, thought, until then to not be amenable to scientific investigation. The importance of this contribution to science, underestimated over the years, is highlighted in the thesis. The thesis also looks at his pioneering researches on gases through their interaction with radiant heat and light. It examines how he used the forces of nature as tools to probe the nature of matter. It presents one consequence of Tyndall’s work that led to the discovery of calorescence, from a new perspective. The author of over 100 scientific papers, Tyndall is revealed as an inspiring research scientist, honoured by the Royal Society and numerous foreign academies. He was however castigated for an inadequate knowledge of mathematics, because he concentrated on imaginative physical interpretations of theoretical notions. At times, therefore, he was seriously underestimated as a scientist, despite admiration by some for the excellence of his work. This theme is also analysed in the thesis. Emerging from this study is an image of Tyndall’s serious engagement with science, and his role as an eminent practitioner and spokesman, who viewed science as beneficial to mankind, and physics as a means of education. 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank my principal tutor Professor Hasok Chang and my subsidiary tutor Professor Steve Miller for an amazing academic experience due to their patient and inspiring guidance. My fellow students provided an essential friendly and supportive atmosphere – it is a privilege and a real pleasure to be a part of this vibrant academic community in the Department of the Science and Technology Studies. I wish to record my thanks to Professor Frank James of the Royal Institution of Great Britain for his encouragement and stimulating discussions. I am also grateful to Jane Harrison on his staff for her very efficient and cheerful assistance at all times. I would like to record my grateful thanks to Dr Catherine Jackson for her support and interest in the thesis. I would like to put on record my thanks to the staff of the libraries of the UCL, Imperial College, the Science Museum, the University of London, the Royal Society, London Library and the British Library for their invaluable help at all times. Geoffrey Eastwood, Jim McGeever, Derek Randall, Margaret and Roger Woodall’s reading of first drafts provided support for which I am grateful. Brian and Marion Edwards and Margaret and Roger Woodall’s friendly encouragement is much appreciated. My family’s interest has meant a great deal to me: I thank Gavin, Fiona and Ian for their forbearance. My thanks are also due to my examiners. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..................................................................................................... 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS......................................................................................................... 6 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 11 CHAPTER 1............................................................................................................................ 13 JOHN TYNDALL FRS THE RESEARCHER AND POPULARISER (1820-1893) ............................ 13 1A. A Brief Introduction to Tyndall’s Life................................................................................ 16 1B. Tyndall the Researcher ...................................................................................................... 20 1B.1 Professional Dimension, especially his Fellowship of the Royal Society and his Decline of the Royal Medal.................................................................................................................... 20 1B.2 The Royal Society Referees.............................................................................................. 22 1B.3. Other Contemporary British Appraisals .......................................................................... 29 1B.4 The Foreign Opinions....................................................................................................... 35 1B.5. The Retrospect from the 20th Century Onwards.............................................................. 39 1C. Tyndall the Populariser ..................................................................................................... 43 1D. Conclusion......................................................................................................................... 53 CHAPTER 2............................................................................................................................ 55 TYNDALL AS AN EXPERIMENTALIST..................................................................................... 55 2A. Introduction........................................................................................................................ 55 2B. Early Influences: Ireland and England.............................................................................. 55 2C. Germany............................................................................................................................. 60 2D. Researches in Diamagnetism............................................................................................. 65 2E. Tyndall and Faraday at work............................................................................................. 76 2F. Rayleigh’s v. Tyndall’s and Faraday’s Mathematics ........................................................ 85 2F.1. Mathematisation of physics ............................................................................................. 85 2F.2. Rayleigh’s mathematics ................................................................................................... 87 2F.3.