Abstract This dissertation investigates specific conceptual and ideological similarities and differences between Israelite religion on the one hand, and Canaanite (Ugaritic) and Mesopotamian religions on the other, by reexamining concrete or ritualistic cultic practices common to both. Though many of the religious practices of the Israelites mirrored ancient Near East practice in form, seemingly they would function quite differently when placed in a different, ideological context. As such, this investigation notes the theological and ideological differences that distinguish Israelite religion from ancient Near Eastern religions, specifically monotheism and the covenant relationship between Yahweh and Israel. Specific Israelite cultic practices are examined by placing them against the background of similar ancient Near Eastern religious practices. Specifically, the accoutrements in the Holy Place (the lampstand, altar of incense, and table) are test cases to determine if this differentiation is tangible. Finally, suggestions will be made as to how these practices reinforced Israel’s unique ideological framework as proponents of Yahwism sought to establish their faith amidst a sea of alternatives. Theological Function As the Key to Israelite Religious Distinctiveness in the Ancient Near East: the Holy Place As a Case Study A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of Asbury Theological Seminary Wilmore, Kentucky In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in Biblical Studies Dissertation Committee: Dr. Bill Arnold, Mentor Dr. Lawson Stone, Reader Dr. John Cook, Examiner By Samuel C. Long May 2017 ii Copyright 2017 Samuel C. Long All rights reserved iii Table of Contents Lists of Tables...............................................................................................................................iii Acknowledgements.......................................................................................................................iv Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................1 1.1 Selected Forschungsgeschichte and Current State of Scholarship .............................3 1.2 The Old Testament’s Self-Attestation of Uniqueness ...............................................14 1.3 Purpose and Parameters of the Study .........................................................................18 Chapter 2: The Question of Israelite Distinctiveness ...................................................................21 2.1 Evolutionary Model ....................................................................................................22 2.2 Transformational Model .............................................................................................26 2.3 Distinctive Ideology 1: Monotheism ..........................................................................35 2.4 Distinctive Ideology 2: Covenant ...............................................................................39 2.5 Israelite Context of their Distinctive Ideologies: The Sinai Covenant .......................45 2.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................47 Chapter 3: The Table ....................................................................................................................52 3.1 Ancient Near Eastern Practice of Feeding and Caring for the gods ...........................53 3.1.1 Atrahasis ......................................................................................................53 3.1.2 Enuma Elish.................................................................................................55 3.1.3 Epic of Gilgamesh........................................................................................55 3.1.4 Incarnating the Deity....................................................................................56 3.1.5 The Divine Meal ..........................................................................................62 3.2 Israel and its Table......................................................................................................65 3.2.1 The Blueprint: Exodus 25:23-30..................................................................68 3.2.2 The Transportation Requirements: Numbers 4:7-8 .....................................75 3.2.3 The Instructions for Cultic Use: Leviticus 24:5-9 .......................................76 3.2.4 Summary and Observations .........................................................................78 3.3 Similarities and Differences from “feeding the gods”................................................81 3.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................85 i Chapter 4: The Lampstand............................................................................................................88 4.1 Ancient Near East Fertility and Light Background ....................................................89 4.1.1 Light.............................................................................................................89 4.1.2 Fertility.........................................................................................................91 4.2 The Israelite Lampstand..............................................................................................94 4.2.1 Form of the Lampstand................................................................................95 4.3 Synthesis and Functional Suggestions.......................................................................103 4.3.1 Presence ......................................................................................................104 4.3.2 Life............................................................................................................ 106 4.3.3 Synthesis ................................................................................................... 109 4.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 110 Chapter 5: The Incense Altar ..................................................................................................... 111 5.1 Incense in the ancient Near East .............................................................................. 111 5.1.1 Examples in ancient Near Eastern Literature ........................................... 114 5.2 Incense in Israelite Religion..................................................................................... 116 5.2.1 Altar Construction..................................................................................... 117 5.2.2 Incense Usage ........................................................................................... 118 123 ......................................................................................................... אזכרה 5.2.3 5.2.3.1 Ancient Near Eastern Parallels .............................................................. 130 5.2.3.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................. 131 5.3 Synthesis and Function ............................................................................................ 132 5.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 135 Chapter 6—Tamid as the Uniting Feature of the Covenant....................................................... 137 Chapter 7—Summary of Investigation and Conclusions........................................................... 146 7.1 Table ........................................................................................................................ 147 7.2 Lampstand................................................................................................................ 148 7.3 Incense ..................................................................................................................... 150 7.4 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 150 ii Lists of Tables Table 1: Table and Bread Descriptions...................................................................................... 67 Table 2: Comparison of Hebrew and Greek in regard to the vessels......................................... 72 Table 3: Comparison of Hebrew and Greek Lampstand Terms ................................................ 100 127 ............................................................................................................. אזכרה Table 4: Usage of iii Acknowledgements It was in a Genesis class in the late ‘90s at Great Lakes Christian College when Dr. Paul Kissling introduced me to the idea of polemic. The suggestion that the biblical writers were doing more than retelling history, but were intentionally separating and distancing themselves from the surrounding culture and religious belief—this approach changed the way I viewed and interpreted the texts. The idea of distinctiveness and the transformational nature of Israelite religion captured my imagination. My interest was piqued further at Emmanuel Christian Seminary, as Dr. Chris Rollston brought his encyclopedic knowledge of aNE religion and culture to bear in and out of the classroom. Upon arriving at Asbury Theological Seminary, I was fortunate enough to learn from professors