Copyright by Steven James Salm 2003 The Dissertation Committee for Steven James Salm certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: “THE BUKOM BOYS” Subcultures and Identity Transformation in Accra, Ghana Committee: _________________________________ Oloruntoyin Falola, Supervisor _________________________________ John Lamphear _________________________________ Christopher Adejumo _________________________________ George Forgie _________________________________ John Collins “THE BUKOM BOYS” Subcultures and Identity Transformation in Accra, Ghana by Steven James Salm, B.A., M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin August 2003 To Andrews Kortei Attuquaye-Fio (a.k.a. Frankie Laine), a friend and confidant who showed me the vitality of youth and the wisdom of age. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This project is much more than the sum of the words on the pages before you. It is the culmination of interactive processes with countless individuals, cultural mediums, and texts. More so than any other aspect, I have benefited greatly from the encouragement, criticisms, and curiosities of many people. To each and everyone, I would like to express my gratitude for providing support in whatever way you could. You are all part of this work. Many people in Austin, Texas have inspired me during the last few years. I was fortunate to arrive at the University of Texas at a time when the African history department began to expand. The presence of Jacqueline Woodfork, Saheed Adejumobi, Joel Tishken, and Christian Jennings allowed for exciting dialogue and the exploration of new areas of intellectual growth. Although I had hoped to be much more of a mentor to Ann Cooper, Tyler Fleming, Ann Genova, Matt Heaton, and Kirsten Walles, I have enjoyed watching them grow into their new role as scholars. Particular thanks go to Jacqueline Woodfork, John Liebhardt, and Manolo Callahan. They made available to me their wisdom, friendship, and support at times too numerous to recall during my years in Austin and abroad. People help to keep us intellectually active, but funding keeps our file-boxes and our bellies full. The fieldwork in Ghana was graciously provided by the National Security v Education Program, the University of Texas at Austin, Thematic Fellowship on Urban Issues, and the William Livingston Fellowship. The University of Texas has supported my work from its inception, providing ample grants and fellowships to stimulate intellectual activities. This project could not have been completed without the support of the University of Ghana, Legon. The history department provided me with affiliated status, allowing me access to the university’s many libraries and rich resources. The Institute of African Studies was a second home for many months as I earnestly tried to ingest knowledge from the wealth of resources in the library as well as the numerous professors with an active interest in popular culture and urban cultural activities. The support staffs of the Institute of African Studies, the Balme Library, the International Center for African Music and Dance, and the National Archives of Ghana never failed to assist me, whether it was in finding particular documents or supplying a large collection from which I could search for that proverbial needle in the haystack. Special thanks goes to Jerry Pengwane, a friend who took time to meet with me on the weekends when the library was closed. He never tired of seeing me nor grew weary of my requests for photocopies. This project owes much to him. Ghana has now become a second home because of the kindness and warm reception that I received from numerous people. I must thank all of my extended families for providing places to rest, friendship, and food, and for always extending me everything that a “son” could need. These include: the Batsas, especially Auntie Agnes, Uncle vi Harold, and my “brother,” Henry; Theodora Agyemang, a warm and caring mother who never failed to inspire me with her acts of kindness; and Francis Provencal and his mother, Mary Anna Hyde, as well as the Meroe family, for making my most recent trip a delight. To my many friends and family in Ghana – Jerry Pengwane, Masao Meroe, Agnes Ababio, Sally, and Berhan – thanks for letting me work, but forcing me to relax and making me laugh when I needed to most. This project would not have been possible without the interest of the many people who agreed to talk to me about their experiences long ago. To them, I say thank you and hope that their reflections are conveyed effectively in this work and that it expresses the feelings that they had as Bukom youth. Special thanks go to Frankie Laine, whose knowledge and energy provided sharper depictions of subcultural activities and drove me to deeper levels of analysis. Frankie, Sandy Sackey, Joe Loss, Count Basie, Okulay Foes, and Woman Tokyo also supplied pictures from their personal collections that helped bring the activities of subcultural youth to life. Roger Alottey, David Kofi, and Kofi Gyampoah assisted me with interviews, transcriptions, and locating informants. A single interview may be short, but the process is inevitably long. While passing the time, I learned much about the youth culture and identity of today and I thank all of those who offered their help. I owe a special debt to Toyin Falola and John Lamphear, two Africanist historians who believed in me enough to bring me to the University of Texas and, once there, pushed me to excel, even when there seemed to be no end in sight. Chris Adejumo, George vii Forgie, and John Collins, the other dissertation committee members, also guided me through this process and helped by reading through a draft and providing helpful comments. John Collins, who has provided the inspiration to so many scholars to study aspects of Ghanaian culture, is prevalent throughout this work. The number of visits to his office are too many to calculate, but each time, I left with something new to think about. As the writing came to fruition, Toyin Falola, always pondering how to get the work published, offered critical comments that forced me to reformulate my ideas in a more cohesive manner. I can honestly say, without him, I would not have made it this far. For his intellectual guidance and friendship, my gratitude can never be expressed sufficiently. Beau Cain and Susan Ranheim provided valuable comments and detailed copy-editing that enhanced beyond measure this final version. During the writing process, we need people outside academia to keep us sane and provide friendship. Dick and Laurie Ranheim provided a refuge to escape Austin and spend time with my second family. I apologize to my first family, sisters Sherry, Stacy, and Cara, and my brother, Jon, who knew I was still working because I missed yet another birthday. To my father, James, and my mother, Sharon, who have both shown sincere interest in my work and without whom none of this would have been possible, I must say how much it has always meant to have your support. Although they are presently scattered throughout the world, from Thailand to Saudi Arabia to Mexico, the people who have been around me the last few years can now say that they saw this project reach its viii conclusion. To Beau and Kimi Cain, Ed and Jeannine Devlin, Brian Gallagher and Alexa Gonzalez, David and Sally Golding, and Nadia Petrossi, I must say thank you. A special acknowledgment goes to Francis Provencal, a friend and artist who represents the complexity of Ghanaian culture and provided me with friendship and company at every turn. The research and writing process was lively and stimulating for me, but unfortunately, it was not always so for the most important person around me, Susan Ranheim. For showing patience, accepting our physical distance, and being there for me during the lengthy process, I owe everything to her. She never doubted that I would find the end and stuck by me through it all. For her love and support, I will never be able to express my gratitude in sufficient abundance. The wisdom of advisors, the support of friends and the love of family, however, cannot save me from myself. Any errors and misjudgments that mar this work are my responsibility alone. ix “THE BUKOM BOYS” Subcultures and Identity Transformation in Accra, Ghana Publication No. _________ Steven James Salm, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2003 Supervisor: Oloruntoyin Falola In the early 1960s, kpanlogo, a unique form of music and dance, became popular in Accra, Ghana. It was created by underclass youth from the Bukom area of Old Accra, the central and oldest part of the city. As a subcultural form, kpanlogo was preceded by rock ‘n’ roll dance clubs which first appeared in early 1957. Both, however, grew to be part of mainstream popular culture, transcending class and generation divides. This study reconstructs the history of youth subcultures in Accra in the late colonial and early independence eras by examining how unique group identities emerged and how they were closely integrated with the creation, adoption, and adaptation of popular culture forms from within and outside of the continent. It shows how the creation of these subcultures was closely tied to the changing economic, political, and social processes that began during the Second World War, but their creation was also connected to an expanding global cultural system carried by new technologies and the increased trans-Atlantic flow of people and ideas. Urban underclass youth successfully merged aspects of American, diaspora, and African influences into new networks of association and created a new urban cultural x milieu that was both a reflection of, and acted as an agent on, their changing identity constructs.