The Invisible Industry vs. The Game Wonder A comparative study of the Norwegian and Swedish media coverage of the international and national video game industries Anders Wiig Letnes Master´s Thesis in Media Studies Department of Media and Communication University of Oslo June 15, 2020 I II The Invisible Industry vs. The Game Wonder A comparative study of the Norwegian and Swedish media coverage of the international and national video game industries Anders Wiig Letnes Master´s Thesis in Media Studies Department of Media and Communication University of Oslo June 15, 2020 III Copyright Anders Wiig Letnes 2020 The Invisible Industry vs. The Game Wonder: A comparative study of the Norwegian and Swedish media coverage of the international and national video game industries Anders Wiig Letnes http://www.duo.uio.no IV Abstract This thesis studies the differences in the Norwegian and Swedish media coverage of the international and national video game industries, and the possible consequences of said differences. It does so by using a theoretical framework mainly consisting of discourse theory, agenda-setting theory and framing, and by using the methods of content analysis and critical discourse analysis (CDA). There were two key findings. First, the Norwegian video game industry is invisible, but “the Swedish game wonder”, which the Swedish industry is called, is not. This could make the Norwegian industry less important for the public, politicians and investors. Second, the Norwegian media tries to bust myths about the industry, games and players, while the Swedish media keeps the myth of the game wonder alive. This difference in coverage was influenced by the financial crisis, which changed the Norwegian coverage entirely, but did not alter the Swedish coverage as much. In general, the Swedish coverage is more positive and balanced than the Norwegian coverage, while the Norwegian coverage is more negative and sensationalist. This could lead to both little knowledge and to false knowledge about the video game industry, Norway´s biggest cultural export, which could both affect its potential future success, and the understanding of the industry, games, gaming and players in the public. Therefore, the infrequent and unbalanced coverage should be changed and improved. V Foreword It started with a mix of jealousy and fascination. Norway and Sweden are neighbors, have a shared culture and history, a similar language, political system, economy and media system. Yet, for some reason I could not fathom at the time, the Swedish video game industry was much more successful than the one of Norway, my home country. You could say, then, that this thesis was born out of a sense of broken national pride. Still, I would say it was more fascination than jealousy. So similar, yet so different – why? As an avid gamer I know that Norwegian developers produce great games – I have played them! – so why are they not as successful as Swedish titles? And why do the media ignore them? Frustration was also a key ingredient. Film, TV-series, literature and music are frequently featured in the Norwegian media, but video games? It is rare. And this, it turns out, is very strange, given the fact that video games are Norway´s biggest cultural export – bigger than literature and film combined. Where is the media coverage on this export? Such questions and observations led me to pursue this topic further, and – through jealousy and frustration, but mostly fascination – this thesis is the product of my pursuit. I have had a great time writing about a topic I care about, but it was hard work. It would not have been possible without my excellent supervisor Joakim Johansen Østby (Spring 2019-Spring 2020). His patience, feedback and encouragement has been vital, and has made it easier to know what works and what needs more work. I am still amazed at how he saw something in my project description two years ago, and how he has helped me step by step towards what the thesis is today. It has undergone many changes, and sure looks quite different from the outline I handed in during the fall of 2018. He has always given me just the right amount of feedback, so I never felt overwhelmed, but also given me enough to work on for the next supervision meeting. This balance between feedback and encouragement has helped me keep my motivation up all the way. Thank you very much! I also want to thank my fiancé Liv Roli Andersen from the bottom of my heart for her infinite patience, understanding and encouragement – not only in this, but in everything. She has let me focus on the thesis when I needed to, and she has helped me take my mind off of it afterwards. Talking to her about the thesis has also helped me keep all the concepts in order. Hopefully, these findings will find their way to a newsroom, where they might serve as eye-openers, or even warnings, to journalists, editors and media owners. Ignore them at your own peril. VI Contents Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Topic & research questions ........................................................................................................................ 1 1.1.1 Topic ...................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.2 Research questions ................................................................................................................................. 4 1.2 Theoretical framework & methodology .................................................................................................... 5 1.2.1 Theoretical framework ........................................................................................................................... 5 1.2.2 Methodology: Research, data, analysis .................................................................................................. 5 1.3 Reader instructions ...................................................................................................................................... 6 1.4 A note on translations .................................................................................................................................. 7 Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................... 8 2.1 The Video Game Industry, media coverage and cultural journalism .................................................... 8 2.1.1 The Video Game Industry: Casual or hardcore? ................................................................................... 8 2.1.2 The Norwegian and Swedish Video Game Industry ........................................................................... 12 2.1.3 Media coverage and cultural journalism .............................................................................................. 14 2.2 Discourse ..................................................................................................................................................... 16 2.2.1 Discourse and CDA ............................................................................................................................. 16 2.3 Media Effects: Agenda Setting Theory and Framing ............................................................................ 17 2.3.1 Media Effects ....................................................................................................................................... 17 2.3.2 Agenda-setting theory .......................................................................................................................... 18 2.3.3 Framing or attribute agenda-setting? ................................................................................................... 19 2.3.4 Framing ................................................................................................................................................ 19 2.4 Frames and discourses .............................................................................................................................. 20 2.4.1 Theory, research and literature as sources for frames and discourses ................................................. 20 2.4.2 Frames: utopian & dystopian / opportunity & threat ........................................................................... 20 2.4.3 Gaming discourse and legitimation ..................................................................................................... 22 2.4.4 Infinite expansion & casual revolution vs. subculture & the return of the hardcore ........................... 23 2.4.5 Media panic ......................................................................................................................................... 25 2.5 Conclusion & summary ............................................................................................................................. 25 Chapter 3: Methodology ......................................................................................................................... 27 3.1 Content Analysis ........................................................................................................................................ 28 3.1.1 Why content analysis? ......................................................................................................................... 28 3.1.2 What is content analysis?